Noordwest-Europa stond ooit tienduizenden jaren in brand
Illustratie van hoe varenvelden van 201 miljoen jaar geleden eruit kunnen hebben gezien.
Bron Illustratie: Mark Garlick
Zo’n 200 miljoen jaar geleden stond het gebied dat nu Noordwest-Europa heet tienduizenden jaren lang in brand. De planten die in dit helse landschap leefden, bleken daarbij niet helemaal onschuldig.
Onderzoekers aan de Universiteit Utrecht hebben gereconstrueerd hoe het er in Noordwest-Europa aan toeging tijdens de zogeheten eind-Triasextinctie. Deze ramp begon toen het supercontinent Pangea uiteenbrak. Bij die breuk kwamen gigantische hoeveelheden lava en broeikasgassen vrij, die de temperatuur met vijf tot tien graden omhoog joegen. Dat was genoeg om ecosystemen wereldwijd te ontwrichten. De bossen die het landschap domineerden, verdwenen tijdens deze periode. Op de kale bodem kregen varens daarna vrij spel.
Die varens waren hun eigen ergste vijand. Omdat ze overleefden waar andere planten stierven, werden ze extreem dominant. Diezelfde eigenschap speelde hen parten. Wanneer dichte varenmatten uitdrogen, vormen ze namelijk een dikke laag brandstof. Tegelijkertijd verstikken ze andere planten.
En anders dan bomen laten varens zich door brand niet zomaar wegvagen. Bovengronds branden ze af, maar vanuit hun ondergrondse wortelstelsel schieten ze snel weer omhoog. Zo ontstaat een vicieuze cirkel, een helse kringloop die volgens de auteurs van de studie tussen de 40.000 en 300.000 jaar aanhield.
De onderzoekers konden dit achterhalen door te kijken naar boorkernen uit vier locaties. Naast de gebruikelijke sporen van brand, zoals houtskool en moleculen uit rook, vonden ze daarin iets onverwachts.
Normaal verkleuren fossiele stuifmeelkorrels en plantensporen naarmate ze dieper begraven raken. Hoe dieper, hoe warmer en hoe donkerder ze worden. Maar in deze kernen zagen de wetenschappers een heel ander patroon. Tijdens de onderzochte periode werden de korrels ineens diep donkerbruin. Daarna lichtten ze weer op tot geel.
De donkere zone verscheen in alle vier de boorkernen op exact hetzelfde moment. Dat is opvallend, want alle onderzochte plekken hebben elk een heel andere geologische geschiedenis. Er moest dus een kracht van buitenaf aan het werk zijn geweest.
De onderzoekers gebruikten daarvoor een simpele maatstaf: de zogeheten Palynomorph Darkness Index. Met een camera op een microscoop maten ze de precieze kleur van elke korrel, in totaal zo’n 15.000 keer. Vervolgens vergeleken ze stuifmeel van bomen met sporen van varens om uit te sluiten dat het om een eigenschap van een bepaalde plantengroep ging. Alle groepen vertoonden dezelfde verkleuring. Dat is bewijs voor een oorzaak van buitenaf. De donkere zone viel bovendien precies samen met de piek in houtskool en rookmoleculen. De verkleurde korrels toonden met andere woorden aan dat er in een bepaalde periode langdurig grootschalige branden plaatsvonden.
Deze varenexplosie ontstond door een samenloop van omstandigheden, waaronder ontbossing, bodemerosie, de opwarming van de aarde en de branden zelf. Dat maakt het verhaal actueel. Ook vandaag verandert het klimaat namelijk in sneltempo. Dat betekent niet per se dat we binnenkort in een vuurzee moeten overleven. Het toont vooral aan dat klimaatverandering onverwachte effecten kan hebben die duizenden tot honderdduizenden jaren aanhouden.
Is Earth entering a sixth mass extinction? Scientists reveal the warning signs
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Approximately 66 million years ago, a massive asteroid impact brought an end to the age of the dinosaurs and triggered Earth’s fifth mass extinction. Today, scientists warn that the planet may be entering a sixth mass extinction event, driven not by a cosmic collision but by accelerating human-driven changes to the natural world.
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A new mass extinction
A team led by Prof. Robert Cowie, from the University of Hawaii, argues in a study published by Biological Reviews that it “seems increasingly likely” that we’re in the early stages of a new mass extinction.
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It is happening
“Denying it is simply flying in the face of the mountain of data that is rapidly accumulating, and there is no longer room for skepticism, wondering whether it really is happening,” argues Cowie, as quoted by news website Vice.
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What is a mass extinction?
A mass extinction occurs when around 70% of animal and plant life cease to exist. In other words, it’s a global catastrophe where biodiversity and the ecosystem are up for grabs.
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Mollusks
Cowie’s study focuses on invertebrate animals, specifically mollusks. The team behind the study considers that the International Union for Conservation of Nature provides disproportionate attention given to vertebrates, such as birds and mammals.
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Image: Ed van Duijin / Unsplash
Animal diversity
“The International Union for Conservation of Nature has not evaluated any but a tiny, tiny fraction of invertebrates such as insects and snails and spiders and crustaceans, which constitute 95 percent of animal diversity,” Cowie told Vice.
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Pictured: A Tasmanian tiger (Thylacine), which was declared extinct in 1936, is displayed at the Australian Museum in Sydney.
Since 1500
The study made by Cowie and his team indicates that something around 7.5% to 13% of species has disappeared since 1500, which suggests that we’re heading towards mass extinction.
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It's our fault
If we’re indeed heading towards the sixth mass extinction, it would be the first that we know of caused by the intervention of a species. In this case, humans.
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The Anthropocene
In fact, the human effect on the environment is so intense that many scientists posit that we live in a new geological epoch: The Anthropocene, which began when humans started to meaningfully impact Earth’s geology and ecosystems
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Agriculture
The Anthropocene so far remains hypothetical. Some claim that it began when humans developed agriculture, 12,000-15,000 years ago.
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The Great Acceleration
Other experts place The Anthropocene hand in hand with The Great Acceleration, the astounding rate of human growth and resource consumption that took off after World War 2.
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Brave new world
In other words, the world in which our grandparents were born is completely different from the world we live in now.
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Image: Dmitry Grigoriev / Unsplash
Bees and butterflies
A good example of the incoming sixth mass extinction is the disappearance of bees and butterflies around the globe.
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Image: Annie Spratt / Unsplash
Within a single generation
According to The Guardian, the bumblebee population in Europe and North America has declined over 30% in the span of a single generation, which points to mass extinction.
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More than honey
The collapse of the bumblebee population also affects humans. The bees are not only responsible for honey, but also pollinate crops such as tomatoes or berries. Without them, less food is produced
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Image: Ed van Dujin / Unsplash
The butterfly effect
Meanwhile, National Geographic reports that over 450 species of butterflies in the US Southwest are also disappearing.
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Crucial for pollination
Butterflies are also crucial to pollinate many plants and flowers, affecting the food chain and the entire ecosystem.
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An inconvenient truth
The main culprit for the decline of bees and butterflies is warmer environments, caused by climate change. The rising temperatures turn the previous home of these species into something inhospitable.
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Pictured: The effects of deforestation in the Amazon Jungle
Land and raw materials.
That's not even taking into account the inordinate use of land and raw materials, affecting or outright destroying whole ecosystems.
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We did start the fire
The damage humans have made to the planet has proven to be irreversible. The most worrying part is that, despite endless initiatives and summits with the best intentions, it continues to this day.
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Time's running out
Meanwhile, time is running out to still maintain the precious balance that has enabled humanity to live for thousands of years. Once we have lost that balance, who knows what challenges will face the next generation.
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“It Was a Mix of Excitement and Disbelief”: When Scientists Sent Deep-Sea Rovers to Confirm a 1960s Theory, They Made a Surprising Discovery
A team of scientists exploring a possible deep-sea coral reef off the coast of Benin that 1960s researchers had deemed likely dead found a living, thriving reef supporting a complex underwater ecosystem, including several coral and fish species.
Led by scientists from the Institut de Recherches Halieutiques et Océanologiques du Bénin, the discovery is the first known mesophotic coral reef in the region and offers scientists a tantalizing target for future deep-sea marine-life expeditions.
According to a statement announcing the unexpected discovery, previous historical surveys of the area had indicated a possible reef more than 50 meters below the water’s surface. When a 1960s survey detected the unusual feature, they suspected it was a coral reef that was likely dead.
When team leader Gérard Zinzindohoué and colleagues studied the features, they suspected that the team from the 60s may have provided them with a golden scientific opportunity. Although the feature’s depth ruled out a typical shallow-water coral reef, the researchers note that it could be an entirely different kind of reef structure, known as a mesophotic coral ecosystem, that can inhabit such depths.
The examined region may be part of a much larger system stretching nearly 25 miles parallel to Benin.
“A mesophotic coral ecosystem lives deeper than the usual shallow coral reefs, in zones where light is much more limited,” Zinzindohoué explained. “Unlike typical shallow reefs, it does not always form a single continuous reef structure. Instead, it can appear as patchy or scattered coral communities spread across the seafloor.”
Instead of using mid-twentieth-century technology to settle the debate, the team turned to the National Geographic Exploration Technology Lab, which provided access to its Deep-Sea Camera System.
A Deep Sea Camera System from National Geographic’s Exploration Technology Lab resurfaces after capturing footage of the coral reef.
Credit: Ghislain Adjahouisso
Following the path set out by the 1960s survey, the team used the underwater camera to map the seafloor with sonar. After several passes, the team covered a total of 11.5 kilometers. Zinzindohoué highlighted the difficulty of the effort, noting that it was “not an easy field campaign.”
“It was a mix of long days at sea, technical problems, and a lot of uncertainty,” the researcher explained. “But then we saw structures on the sonar that looked like they could be reef signatures, which gave us hope that we were close.”
The closer the team drove the Deep-Sea Explorer’s cameras, the more the shockingly unexpected scene began to unfold.
Image Credit: Gérard Zinzindohoué
“That was a big moment for us, because suddenly we could actually see the seafloor,” Zinzindohoué said.
Instead of the dark, lifeless structure anticipated by the original survey team, the new team found a healthy reef containing eight distinct types of coral. The system was also actively supporting eight fish species, with the camera capturing them feeding and sheltering among the corals. The species identified by the team include golden African snappers, blackbar soldierfish, Guinean angelfish, West African goatfish, the Monrovia doctorfish, three-banded butterflyfish, and two distinct species of damselfish.
Image Credit: Gérard Zinzindohoué
“I still remember seeing those first images,” Zinzindohoué recalled of the vibrant ecosystem lying directly in front of the cameras. “It was a mix of excitement and disbelief, because after all this time thinking about this reef, suddenly there was something real in front of us.”
When discussing the discovery’s significance, Zinzindohoué said that to the team’s knowledge, “this is the first confirmed record of a living mesophotic coral ecosystem on the Gulf of Guinea continental shelf.”
Although the cameras captured a complex ecosystem, the researchers said that the reef does not appear to be a continuous barrier. Instead, the deep-sea environment consists of several patches of coral that occupy rocky seabed areas most suitable for their survival. Still, they add that further surveys may identify more reefs in the same area.
Footage from the National Geographic Exploration Technology Lab’s Deep Sea Camera System captures a sea floor rich with marine life.
Credit: Gérard Zinzindohoué/IRHOB
“I think what we found is probably not an exception,” Zinzindohoué said. “It is more likely a reflection of how little we still know about coastal regions in West Africa and elsewhere. If we were able to find this reef again after 60 years, how many others are still undocumented or simply forgotten?”
Since the team was unable to sample the corals directly, they were unable to confirm the species identification with genetic analysis. The team was also hesitant to condemn the original 1960s survey, noting that it is impossible to tell, without more data, whether the corals were dead at the time and have since rebounded.
“This is still an initial exploration,” Zinzindohoué said. “The historical reports suggested that this could be a continuous coral reef barrier extending roughly 40 kilometers parallel to the coast. We only surveyed a small section of this area, and we had a limited number of visual transects.”
Although there are no immediate plans for a return expedition, the research leader said the only thing holding them back from learning more about these ecosystems, which are “still poorly known in this part of the world,” is adequate financial support.
Mesophotic coral reefs live at deeper depths than typical, shallower coral.
Credit: Gérard Zinzindohoué
“If I had all the grant money in the world, the first thing I would do is return to the site with a proper scientific diving and sampling program,” he said, before adding that “every additional piece of information matters.”
“I do believe there are more coral systems out there that we have not yet documented,” he said. “But we should not assume they are everywhere. Each discovery needs to be confirmed. Without going back into the field, we are really just guessing.”
On a personal note, the team leader said the most exciting part is understanding the reef’s history and the lessons that can be gleaned from this underexplored region.
“It feels like we have only just started to read an archive that has been there for a very long time.”
The study “First evidence of live mesophotic coral reefs on the Benin continental shelf” was published in Frontiers in Marine Science.
The most mysterious places on Earth where not a single human has set foot, revealed
From the North Pole to the summit of Mount Everest, it might seem like intrepid explorers have already conquered every remaining frontier.
However, you might be surprised to learn just how many places on Earth have never been visited by a single living human.
From the impenetrable heart of ancient forests to the frozen peaks of sacred mountains, these are the last few truly untouched locations.
And, in the hidden depths of caves, there could be hundreds of miles of pristine territory that are still waiting to be discovered.
Like the terrifying peak of Gangkhar Puensum, the tallest unclimbed mountain in the world, some of these sites have been left untouched for religious or spiritual reasons.
However, areas like the crushing depths of the Arctic Ocean's Gakkel Ridge are simply too hostile and dangerous for humans to reach.
Meanwhile, out in Earth's last true wildernesses of Antarctica and Siberia, vast uncharted regions remain untrodden despite decades of attempted exploration.
Read on to find out where the most mysterious locations on Earth are hidden.
While it might seem like explorers have pushed back every frontier, there are actually many places yet to be visited by a single human. Pictured: Glaciers and rock outcrops in Marie Byrd Land, West Antarctica
Located in West Antarctica, Marie Byrd Land is one of the only true examples of Terra Nullius.
Literally meaning no-man's land, that status means these 620,000 square miles (1.61 million square km) of frozen expanse are the legal property of no nation.
Scientists estimate that 99.6 per cent of this area remains pristine wilderness totally untouched by humanity, compared to just 32 per cent of Antarctica as a whole.
Due to its vast size, covering the same area as Alaska, and extreme conditions, most of the region has never been visited by humans despite decades of exploration.
However, the region is also of critical scientific importance.
Andrew Fleming, Head of the Mapping and Geographic Information Centre at the British Antarctic Survey, told the Daily Mail: 'It includes Thwaites Glacier, the focus of the major International Thwaites Glacier Collaboration research programme.
'As one of the largest glaciers draining the West Antarctic Ice Sheet, the future behaviour of Thwaites Glacier and the surrounding ice sheet is of global significance, as it could contribute substantially to sea-level rise.;
Located in West Antarctica, Marie Byrd Land is one of the only true examples of Terra Nullius - meaning no-man's land
Spanning more than 12,000 square miles (30,296 square km), the Northern Forest Complex is one of Earth's last true wildernesses.
This dense jungle spans the mountainous land in the far North of Myanmar, stretching between the borders of India and China.
It is one of the largest tracts of intact forest in Southeast Asia, estimated to contain 6,000 species, of which 1,500 are believed to exist nowhere else.
The area was already extremely remote, and only sparsely inhabited by native groups, but access became even more restricted in the 1960s.
As political conflict swept through Myanmar, the nation closed the Northern Forest Complex to most researchers for the last 70 years.
This means that many of the forest's deepest areas are still yet to be explored.
The Northern Forest Complex in Myanmar covers more than 12,000 square miles (30,296 square km) of mountainous terrain, most of which remains unexplored
Standing at 24,836 feet (7,550 metres) and looming a full 9,800 feet (3,000 metres) above its neighbours, Bhutan's Gangkhar Puensum is the tallest unclimbed mountain in the world.
Harsh weather, a remote location, and a lack of proper mapping make the climb challenging, but this is not why the peak has been abandoned.
Instead, Ghangar Puensum cannot be climbed because of strongly held religious beliefs.
The Bhutanese people believe that mountains are sacred because deities live at their summits.
Several attempts were made in the 1980s, but climbers always turned back out of respect for local custom.
In 1994, the government banned climbing above 6,000 metres and, in 2003, completely prohibited mountaineering in the country.
So, while taller and more deadly mountains have been conquered, Gangkhar Puensum may remain unclimbed forever.
Bhutan's Gangkhar Puensum is the tallest unclimbed mountain in the world thanks to a strict religious prohibition on mountaineering in the country
This holy mountain, otherwise known as 'Mount Fishtail' after its notched summit, is arguably one of the least visited places on Earth.
The incredible twin peaks tower 22,943 feet (6,993 metres) above the Annapurna Conservation Area, in Northern Nepal.
According to the legends of the local Gurung people, the mountain is the home of Lord Shiva, one of the principal deities in Hinduism.
This means that the mountain has been almost entirely untouched throughout human history.
In 1957, a British expedition obtained permission to climb the peak but turned back within 150 metres of the summit, having promised the King of Nepal they would not touch the peak.
Since then, no new permits have been issued to climb, and the mountain remains untouched.
But not every unclimbed peak has been left for spiritual reasons.
Machapuchare, otherwise known as 'Mount Fishtail', in Nepal has never been climbed. A British team came within 150 meters of the summit in 1957 but turned back in respect for local religious traditions
Others, like the massive Summa Ri and Summa Ri II, are simply too dangerous and inaccessible for humans to reach - making this the tallest unclimbed mountain where climbing is allowed.
Located in a remote part of the Pakistan-China border, these peaks stand at 23,990 feet (7,312 meters) and 23,956 feet (7,302 meters) respectively, and have never been climbed.
While climbing is not officially banned in the area, attempting to reach the summit is essentially impossible.
Sandwiched in a politically sensitive area, there are no roads, trails or base camp to set out from.
Combined with glaciated terrain, deep crevasses, and avalanche-prone slopes, Summa Ri may remain unclimbed for many years to come.
However, if you thought unclimbed peaks were hard to come by, the imposing mountain range of Nyainqêntanglha East will quickly prove that notion wrong.
Stretching some 370 miles (600 km) along and 123 miles (200 km) wide, this impossibly remote mountain range is almost entirely untouched by humanity.
Standing at 23,990 feet (7,312 meters), Suma Ri is the tallest unclimbed mountain that can legally be attempted
In the imposing mountain range of Nyainqêntanglha East, 159 of the 164 peaks above 19,685 feet (6,000 metres) are yet to be climbed
The range is located on the southeastern rim of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and is sometimes known as the 'Alps of Tibet'.
But, unlike the Alps, the vast majority of the peaks in this area remain unclimbed.
Out of the 164 peaks above 19,685 feet (6,000 metres), 159 are yet to be climbed.
A few western expeditions and a growing number of local climbers have now started to set new routes on untouched peaks, but those hunting for somewhere no human has trodden are still spoiled for choice.
Moving away from the heights of the mountains, the ocean's depths hide even more places yet untouched by humanity.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration estimates that just 28.7 per cent of the ocean floor has even been mapped, while only 0.001 per cent has been directly observed by humans.
Yet, of all those uncharted regions, the Gakkel Ridge is possibly the most inaccessible and fascinating.
The Gakkel Ridge is a 1,120-mile-long (1,800 km) underwater volcanic mountain range stretching across the Eurasian Basin in the Arctic Ocean, almost none of which has been explored
This is an 1,120-mile-long (1,800 km) underwater volcanic mountain range stretching across the Eurasian Basin in the Arctic Ocean.
Plunging between 15,090 feet (4,600 metres) and 16,730 feet (5,100 metres) beneath the surface, this trench between the North American and the Eurasian continental plates is one of the deepest points on Earth.
However, unlike the Marina Trench, the Gakkel Ridge is also covered by an almost impenetrable layer of sea ice all year round.
In October last year, a Chinese expedition was able to use icebreakers to launch a manned mission into the trench, but only a tiny fraction of its area has yet been explored.
Chris Lloyd, a geologist and cave explorer from the Association for Mexican Cave Studies, told the Daily Mail: 'There are not a lot of places on this planet that are truly still unknown; caves are some of those places.'
And no place has more potential for new discoveries than Mexico's Yucatan Cenotes, natural limestone sinkholes and cave systems that were flooded around 10,000 years ago.
There are about 7,000 cenotes in the Yucatan province, and only 142 are available to visit - meaning that 98 per cent are still unexplored.
Experts think the Yucatan Cenotes in Mexico could be hiding around 1,000 km of unexplored passages
Hang Son Doong, Vietnam, is the world's largest cave. While the main passage has been mapped, experts believe that many of its subterranean river systems and side passages remain unmapped and unexplored
Some of these may have once been inhabited by prehistoric groups before the waters rose, but there are many hidden depths that no human has ever visited.
Mr Lloyd says: 'There probably is at least as much more to explore in the cenotes as has already been explored, which means something like another 1,000 km of passages.'
Besides Mexico's Cenotes, the other great uncharted cave is Hang Son Doong in Vietnam.
Believed to be the world's largest cave, the mapped areas alone cover 38.5 million cubic meters and extend over 5.8 miles (9.4 km).
Despite decades of concerted exploration, divers are still finding more tunnels and chambers hidden within.
Even in 2019, a team of explorers discovered chambers that added another 1.6 million cubic meters of volume.
While the main passage has been mapped, experts believe that many of its subterranean river systems and side passages remain unmapped and unexplored.
El Niño is RAPIDLY strengthening, experts say - and the consequences could be catastrophic
Super El Niño has officially begun in the tropical Pacific and is now rapidly strengthening, scientists warn.
The World Meteorological Organization's (WMO) latest forecast shows that El Niño conditions are forecast to grow into a 'strong' event during July to September this year.
According to weather models, ocean surface temperatures are showing a 'consistent and significant warming' across the key central and eastern Pacific regions.
Experts now predict that water temperatures will exceed 2C (3.6F) above average in the critical areas driving the El Niño cycle.
The WMO expects that El Niño will continue to strengthen through autumn in the Northern Hemisphere, with an influence covering many regions of the globe.
Meanwhile, other ocean areas such as the equatorial Atlantic Basin are also predicted to stay well above average.
This natural warming cycle is expected to exacerbate the weather-altering effects of climate change, leading to potentially catastrophic extreme weather around the globe.
WMO Secretary-General Celeste Saulo said: 'This will intensify the chances of drought and heavy rainfall and the risk of heatwaves on land and marine heatwaves in many regions of the world.'
The World Meteorological Organization warns that El Niño is strengthening rapidly and could trigger extreme weather and heat around the world. Pictured: Map showing the probability of a given area experiencing above-average heat
The El Niño-Southern Oscillation is a naturally occurring weather cycle, which is one of the biggest drivers of year-to-year weather variations
Every two to seven years, the cycle shifts between a cooling La Niña phase and a warming El Niño phase.
Normally, the trade winds blow westwards across the Pacific, transporting warm water away from South America towards Australia and allowing colder water to well up along the coast.
During the El Niño phase of the cycle, these winds weaken or reverse, allowing warm water to build up in the tropical Pacific.
That concentration of warm water can raise the global average temperature and disrupt weather patterns on a global scale.
Last month, scientists confirmed that the ocean surface in the Pacific has now warmed past the threshold for El Niño conditions to officially begin.
However, experts now predict that the weather pattern is only going to strengthen as time goes by.
Over the oceans, the Pacific already shows the footprint of a rapidly intensifying El Niño event, with more than 80 per cent likelihood of above-normal sea surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific.
Experts forecast that El Niño will continue to strengthen from July to September as waters in the equatorial Pacific warm
Ms Saulo said: 'El Niño conditions are already underway and are forecast to strengthen rapidly into a strong event – as accurately anticipated by WMO forecasts.'
The El Niño weather pattern typically reaches its peak in November and February, exerting its strongest influence on global temperatures in the year following its onset.
The exact impacts an El Niño triggers vary depending on its intensity, the time of year it forms, and how it interacts with other ongoing climate events.
But in almost all cases, this weather pattern leads to increased global temperatures and extreme weather around the globe.
According to the WMO's predictions, there is now an 'overwhelming likelihood' of above-average temperatures on land between 60°S and 60°N, which includes almost all populated regions on Earth.
This comes as Europe already grapples with a record-breaking heatwave that has sent temperatures soaring.
In the UK, the record for the hottest June day was broken as a temperature of 37.3C was recorded in Santon Downham, in Suffolk.
Similarly, provisional figures reveal that the UK has just sweltered through the hottest June on record.
This comes after the UK experienced its hottest June on record, with an average temperature of 17.1C last month, surpassing the previous record of 16.9C set in 2025
El Niño is also expected to affect global patterns of precipitation, leading to lower-than-average rainfall in northern Europe
According to the Met Office, the average temperature was 17.1C last month, surpassing the previous record of 16.9C set in 2025.
Meanwhile, France has been facing deadly heat conditions that have already been linked to 1,300 deaths.
While the current heatwaves are not caused by El Niño, experts say we can also expect extreme heat ‘almost everywhere’ as the weather pattern intensifies this summer.
Gareth Redmond-King, Head of International Programme at the Energy and Climate Intelligence Unit, said: 'Two deadly heatwaves in the last two months have shown how dangerous climate change impacts have become at 1.4C of global average temperature rise.
'Now an intensifying El Niño is set to add more heat into our climate, driving temperatures up almost everywhere in the coming months.'
While its influence on British weather is indirect, a particularly strong El Niño event could raise global temperatures and supercharge the heating effects of climate change, as well as reducing rainfall across Northern Europe.
Simon Culling, a prominent data collector and investigator for the UK’s Tornado & Storm Research Organisation (TORRO), wrote on X: ‘If the current predictions for the forthcoming El Niño phase are realised, what does this mean for the UK?
‘It may mean hotter summers for both 2026 and 2027 and increases the risk of a significant cold spell in winter 2026/27. Let’s see what plays out.’
De Noord-Atlantische koudevlek: toeval of teken van een groter klimaatprobleem?
©The Daily Digest
Afbeelding: NASA Scientific Visualization Studio/Goddard Space Flight Center
Een belangrijk raadsel dat opgelost moet worden
In de Noord-Atlantische Oceaan, ten zuiden van IJsland en Groenland, is een raadselachtige 'koude zone' ontstaan. In dit uitgestrekte zeegebied daalt de temperatuur continu, wat in contrast staat met de algehele opwarming van de oceaan.
©The Daily Digest
Snel afkoelingsproces
Volgens CNN zeggen experts dat dit belangrijke Atlantische gebied al meer dan een eeuw aan het afkoelen is, in die mate dat de temperatuur van het water volgens de beschikbare gegevens sinds 1900 met ongeveer één graad Celsius is gedaald.
©The Daily Digest
Twee theorieën over wat er gaande is
In deze context wordt er binnen de wetenschap gedebatteerd over twee theorieën over de mogelijke oorzaak van deze 'koude plek'. Enerzijds zou het te wijten kunnen zijn aan warmteverlies van het oceaanoppervlak als gevolg van veranderingen in wind en bewolking; anderzijds aan de verzwakking van het systeem dat de oceaanstromingen in de Atlantische Oceaan transporteert.
©The Daily Digest
Cruciaal kantelpunt in het klimaat
Nieuw onderzoek, waarover CNN bericht, neigt nu naar de tweede optie om dit mysterie te verklaren. Het suggereert tevens dat het een teken zou kunnen zijn dat we op het punt staan een alarmerend kantelpunt in het klimaat te bereiken, met catastrofale gevolgen voor de toekomst.
©The Daily Digest
Atlantische Meridionale Omwentelingscirculatie
De studie verwijst naar het cruciale systeem van oceaanstromingen, de AMOC (Atlantische Meridionale Omwentelingscirculatie), dat volgens experts functioneert als een gigantische transportband die warm water vanuit de tropen naar het noordelijk halfrond voert, waar het afkoelt, zinkt en weer naar het zuiden terugkeert.
©The Daily Digest
Vingerafdruk van veranderingen in de AMOC
Gezien het bestaan van de AMOC kan de 'koude zone' die we vandaag de dag in de Noord-Atlantische Oceaan zien, volgens de auteurs van de studie worden beschouwd als een vingerafdruk waarop de veranderingen binnen het systeem te zien zijn, aangezien het daar is waar de meeste waterkwaliteit die het met zich meebrengt, aankomt.
©The Daily Digest
Opwarming van de aarde en zoet water
Naast dit onderzoek hebben talrijke andere studies al gewaarschuwd voor de verzwakking van de AMOC. De reden hiervoor is dat door het smeltende ijs als gevolg van de opwarming van de aarde een enorme hoeveelheid zoet water de oceaan instroomt, waardoor het evenwicht tussen zoutgehalte en warmte verstoord raakt en de werking van dit stromingssysteem wordt beïnvloed.
©The Daily Digest
Ineenstorten in het aangezicht van de toekomst
Deze verzwakking zal blijven toenemen totdat het klimaatkantelpunt is bereikt waar wetenschappers naar verwijzen, wat onvermijdelijk zou leiden tot de ineenstorting van de AMOC, iets wat, benadrukken zij, al in deze eeuw zou kunnen gebeuren.
©The Daily Digest
Wereldwijde catastrofe
En wat zou er gebeuren in geval van een ineenstorting? De gevolgen zouden verwoestend zijn en een wereldwijde catastrofe veroorzaken, die zich zou manifesteren in een aanzienlijke stijging van de zeespiegel aan de oostkust van de Verenigde Staten of langdurige droogtes in Afrika als gevolg van de verstoring van de moesson, en bovendien het Europese continent in een permanente ijskoude winter zou storten.
©The Daily Digest
Afkoeling zowel aan de oppervlakte als op grotere diepte
Een van de ontdekkingen van deze recente studie naar de 'koude zone' in de Noord-Atlantische Oceaan, die de neiging versterkt om te denken dat het probleem ligt in de verzwakking van de AMOC, is dat de afkoeling van het water niet alleen aan de oppervlakte plaatsvond, maar ook in de diepte van de oceaan.
©The Daily Digest
Gegevens uit veldmetingen versus klimaatmodellen
Om dit te analyseren, vergeleek het team van wetenschappers dat bij het onderzoek betrokken was, de daadwerkelijke gegevens over de oceaanwarmte, verkregen via satellietonderzoek en met specifieke instrumenten die uit het water waren gehaald, met de gebruikelijke klimaatmodellen. Op basis hiervan konden ze de verandering in de trend van dit uitgestrekte watergebied in de Atlantische Oceaan waarnemen.
©The Daily Digest
Invloed van AMOC
Volgens de auteur van de studie, Stefan Rahmstorf, hoogleraar natuurkunde en oceanografie aan de Universiteit van Potsdam (Duitsland), is de AMOC duidelijk de boosdoener achter de afkoeling van deze watermassa, omdat deze, zoals hij aan CNN vertelde, "het transport van oceanische warmte beïnvloedt".
©The Daily Digest
Afbeelding: Wikipedia
Het zwakste punt in 1000 jaar
Rahmstorf benadrukte verder dat, afgezien van deze 'koude plek', ze al voldoende bewijs hadden uit talrijke eerdere studies die wezen op de verzwakking van de AMOC, in die mate dat, zo benadrukte hij, deze zich momenteel op het zwakste punt in 1000 jaar zou kunnen bevinden.
©The Daily Digest
Heeft niets te maken met atmosferische omstandigheden
Onderzoeker René van Westen van de Universiteit Utrecht (Nederland) benadrukte ook dat de resultaten van Rahmstorfs onderzoek het idee versterken dat de afkoeling van deze enorme watermassa niet wordt beïnvloed door atmosferische omstandigheden, hoewel is aangetoond dat deze wel degelijk via die weg kan plaatsvinden.
©The Daily Digest
Gebieden waar wind en bewolking weinig invloed hebben
Van Westen verwijst in dit geval naar de bijzonderheid dat het diepe water in dit specifieke gebied ook afkoelt, ondanks het feit dat elementen zoals wind of wolken hier weinig invloed hebben.
©The Daily Digest
Eenvoudige benaderingen?
Andere deskundigen, zoals David Thornally, hoogleraar oceaan- en klimaatwetenschappen aan University College London, wijzen erop dat het nog te vroeg is om definitieve uitspraken over deze kwesties te doen. Hoewel hij erkent dat de studie het bewijs voor een verband tussen de 'koude zone' en de AMOC versterkt, stelt hij dat de gegevens slechts benaderingen zijn en geen absolute waarheid weergeven.
©The Daily Digest
De noodzaak van verder onderzoek
In een gesprek met CNN waarschuwde Thornally dat er onder wetenschappers nog steeds veel onzekerheid bestaat over wat er met deze massa koud water zou kunnen gebeuren, en benadrukte hij de noodzaak van verder onderzoek: "Ik denk niet dat (deze studie) het laatste woord over dit onderwerp is", verklaarde hij.
©The Daily Digest
Er zijn nog steeds problemen die opgelost moeten worden
In dezelfde trant maakte Jonathan Baker, klimaatwetenschapper bij het Britse meteorologische instituut Met Office, duidelijk dat verder onderzoek naar dit onderwerp nodig is: "Deze studie levert aanvullend bewijs voor de bijdrage van de AMOC aan de koude luchtmassa, maar lost de kwestie niet definitief op", vertelde hij aan CNN.
{ The Daily Digest }
Scientists propose radical new theory of consciousness – and claim it doesn't depend on flesh and blood
Human consciousness is one of the strangest and most stubbornly elusive phenomena in nature.
Now, researchers have proposed a radical theory that suggests consciousness doesn't depend on flesh and blood.
According to their 'Copernican Principle', consciousness isn't some special property that is only found in humans and a handful of creatures with similar biology.
That means brains and bodies radically different from our own should be able to experience the universe just like we do.
This has huge implications for our search for life amongst the stars, since conscious beings might be nothing like life as we know it.
This bold theory opens the door to conscious aliens with entirely different biological chemistry from our own, like 'Rocky' from Project Hail Mary.
And it might mean that there's nothing preventing an artificial intelligence from becoming conscious.
Co–author Professor Eric Schwitzgebel, of the University of California, says: 'The universe may contain minds stranger than we can imagine.'
Researchers have proposed a bold new theory of consciousness, which says that it doesn't rely on flesh and blood
Very roughly, we can define consciousness as the 'what it is like' aspect of existence.
The big question scientists and philosophers have spent years debating is whether this property is 'substrate flexible'.
This means that it can be 'realised' by lots of different types of things, just like the property of 'being a cup' can be realised by something made of glass or plastic.
Recently, some researchers have made the case that consciousness isn't substrate–flexible at all, meaning it can only arise in very specific types of biological systems.
This essentially narrows down the range of creatures that could be conscious to a very small slice of possible life that includes creatures on Earth and those with Earth–like biology.
That might seem like a harmless assumption until we start to think about the baffling variety of life that could exist out in the wider universe.
Professor Schwitzgebel and his co–author Dr Jeremy Pober, from the University of Lisbon, suggest that if advanced civilisations arise in just one galaxy in every billion, there would still be over 1,000 scattered over time and space.
The authors say that consciousness shouldn't be unique to things with human–like biology. This means that silicon–based life, like Rocky from Project Hail Mary, could also be conscious
Given the wide variety of possible environments in which they might flourish, it should be no surprise that many of these creatures would be very different to us.
Dr Pober told the Daily Mail that aliens could have 'high level' differences in terms of their functional architecture, but could also differ at the 'much lower level' of basic biochemistry.
'Astrobiologists and biochemists have shown that carbon–based life, which is nonetheless significantly different in biochemical composition from ours, is possible,' says Dr Pober.
For example, life that evolved in the sulphuric acid clouds of Venus might have silicon take the role that sulphur plays in our biochemistry.
However, no matter how advanced or intelligent these creatures might be, some theorists suggest that these differences rule them out from being considered conscious.
To Dr Pober and Professor Schwitzgebel, this is an obvious mistake.
Instead, they propose something called the 'Copernican Principle of Consciousness'.
The idea is that we shouldn't simply assume that humans and our particular type of conscious experience are special or unique.
Their ideas are inspired by the work of Nicolaus Copernicus (pictured), who showed that Earth wasn't in a special place in the universe. Likewise, they argue that we shouldn't think of human consciousness as special
This draws inspiration from the so–called 'Copernican Revolution' in astronomy, in which astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus realised Earth wasn't at the centre of the universe.
Before Copernicus, people thought that Earth occupied a special or privileged position in the universe.
However, better scientific understanding has shown that it is better to assume that there is nothing special about Earth or humans until proven otherwise.
Dr Pober says: 'The spirit of the Copernican Principle is: we should believe that we as humans are special when we have evidence that says so, but not when we don't.
For example, we have plenty of evidence to suggest that humans are the most intelligent species on Earth, but absolutely no reason to think we are even nearly the most intelligent in the universe.
Once we apply this idea to consciousness, Dr Pober says there's no reason to think that consciousness needs to rely on flesh and blood.
The big consequence of that idea is that it vastly expands the possible range of life forms that could be having conscious experiences out in the wider universe.
The researchers are dubious that silicon–based lifeforms like Rocky or the Horta from Star Trek are biologically viable.
The researchers are divided over whether this means artificial intelligences, like Skynet from The Terminator, could be conscious in the future
But if they did exist, there is no reason to think that they wouldn't be conscious.
However, Dr Pober and Professor Schwitzgebel don't agree on what this means for AI.
On the one hand, Dr Pober isn't convinced that we shouldn't be so flexible with what can be considered conscious.
'There is good reason to think some aliens with biochemistries are conscious,' he says.
'The extent of this difference – the degree of substrate flexibility of consciousness, if you will – does not extend to stuff as different from us as silicon chips.'
However, Professor Schwitzgebel argues that we should be even more flexible about what sorts of systems can be considered conscious.
Once the idea that consciousness requires human biology is abandoned, he argues, it becomes harder to justify excluding silicon–based systems solely because they are made of silicon.
Professor Schwitzgebel adds that philosophers have 'focused too much on whether silicon can duplicate a human brain and not enough on the broader question of what kinds of systems can be conscious.'
Brain and memory preservation has been explored at length by futurists, scientists and science fiction junkies alike.
Many say it falls under the category of 'transhumanism.'
Transhumanism is the belief that the human body can evolve beyond its current form with the help of scientists and technology.
The practice of mind uploading has been promoted by many people, including Ray Kurzweil, Google's director of engineering, who believes we will be able to upload our entire brains to computers by 2045.
Similar technologies have been depicted in science fiction dramas, ranging from Netflix's Altered Carbon, to the popular series Black Mirror.
Another prominent futurist, Dr Michio Kaku, believes virtual reality can be used to keep our loved ones' personalities and memories alive even after they die.
Scientists and futurists have different theories about how we might be able to preserve the human brain, ranging from uploading our memories to a computer to Nectome's high-tech embalming process, which can keep it intact for thousands of years
'Imagine being able to speak to your loved one after they die ... it is possible if their personality has been downloaded onto a computer as an avatar,' he explained.
These ideas haven't been met without criticism.
McGill University Neuroscientist Michael Hendricks told MIT that these technologies are a 'joke.'
'I hope future people are appalled that in the 21st century, the richest and most comfortable people in history spent their money and resources trying to live forever on the backs of their descendants. I mean, it’s a joke, right? They are cartoon bad guys,' he said.
Meanwhile, neuroscientist Miguel Nicolelis said recently that such technologies would be virtually impossible.
'The brain is not computable and no engineering can reproduce it,' he said.
'You can have all the computer chips in the world and you won't create a consciousness.'
RELATED VIDEOS
De Noord-Atlantische koudevlek: toeval of teken van een groter klimaatprobleem?
©The Daily Digest
Afbeelding: NASA Scientific Visualization Studio/Goddard Space Flight Center
Een belangrijk raadsel dat opgelost moet worden
In de Noord-Atlantische Oceaan, ten zuiden van IJsland en Groenland, is een raadselachtige 'koude zone' ontstaan. In dit uitgestrekte zeegebied daalt de temperatuur continu, wat in contrast staat met de algehele opwarming van de oceaan.
©The Daily Digest
Snel afkoelingsproces
Volgens CNN zeggen experts dat dit belangrijke Atlantische gebied al meer dan een eeuw aan het afkoelen is, in die mate dat de temperatuur van het water volgens de beschikbare gegevens sinds 1900 met ongeveer één graad Celsius is gedaald.
©The Daily Digest
Twee theorieën over wat er gaande is
In deze context wordt er binnen de wetenschap gedebatteerd over twee theorieën over de mogelijke oorzaak van deze 'koude plek'. Enerzijds zou het te wijten kunnen zijn aan warmteverlies van het oceaanoppervlak als gevolg van veranderingen in wind en bewolking; anderzijds aan de verzwakking van het systeem dat de oceaanstromingen in de Atlantische Oceaan transporteert.
©The Daily Digest
Cruciaal kantelpunt in het klimaat
Nieuw onderzoek, waarover CNN bericht, neigt nu naar de tweede optie om dit mysterie te verklaren. Het suggereert tevens dat het een teken zou kunnen zijn dat we op het punt staan een alarmerend kantelpunt in het klimaat te bereiken, met catastrofale gevolgen voor de toekomst.
©The Daily Digest
Atlantische Meridionale Omwentelingscirculatie
De studie verwijst naar het cruciale systeem van oceaanstromingen, de AMOC (Atlantische Meridionale Omwentelingscirculatie), dat volgens experts functioneert als een gigantische transportband die warm water vanuit de tropen naar het noordelijk halfrond voert, waar het afkoelt, zinkt en weer naar het zuiden terugkeert.
©The Daily Digest
Vingerafdruk van veranderingen in de AMOC
Gezien het bestaan van de AMOC kan de 'koude zone' die we vandaag de dag in de Noord-Atlantische Oceaan zien, volgens de auteurs van de studie worden beschouwd als een vingerafdruk waarop de veranderingen binnen het systeem te zien zijn, aangezien het daar is waar de meeste waterkwaliteit die het met zich meebrengt, aankomt.
©The Daily Digest
Opwarming van de aarde en zoet water
Naast dit onderzoek hebben talrijke andere studies al gewaarschuwd voor de verzwakking van de AMOC. De reden hiervoor is dat door het smeltende ijs als gevolg van de opwarming van de aarde een enorme hoeveelheid zoet water de oceaan instroomt, waardoor het evenwicht tussen zoutgehalte en warmte verstoord raakt en de werking van dit stromingssysteem wordt beïnvloed.
©The Daily Digest
Ineenstorten in het aangezicht van de toekomst
Deze verzwakking zal blijven toenemen totdat het klimaatkantelpunt is bereikt waar wetenschappers naar verwijzen, wat onvermijdelijk zou leiden tot de ineenstorting van de AMOC, iets wat, benadrukken zij, al in deze eeuw zou kunnen gebeuren.
©The Daily Digest
Wereldwijde catastrofe
En wat zou er gebeuren in geval van een ineenstorting? De gevolgen zouden verwoestend zijn en een wereldwijde catastrofe veroorzaken, die zich zou manifesteren in een aanzienlijke stijging van de zeespiegel aan de oostkust van de Verenigde Staten of langdurige droogtes in Afrika als gevolg van de verstoring van de moesson, en bovendien het Europese continent in een permanente ijskoude winter zou storten.
©The Daily Digest
Afkoeling zowel aan de oppervlakte als op grotere diepte
Een van de ontdekkingen van deze recente studie naar de 'koude zone' in de Noord-Atlantische Oceaan, die de neiging versterkt om te denken dat het probleem ligt in de verzwakking van de AMOC, is dat de afkoeling van het water niet alleen aan de oppervlakte plaatsvond, maar ook in de diepte van de oceaan.
©The Daily Digest
Gegevens uit veldmetingen versus klimaatmodellen
Om dit te analyseren, vergeleek het team van wetenschappers dat bij het onderzoek betrokken was, de daadwerkelijke gegevens over de oceaanwarmte, verkregen via satellietonderzoek en met specifieke instrumenten die uit het water waren gehaald, met de gebruikelijke klimaatmodellen. Op basis hiervan konden ze de verandering in de trend van dit uitgestrekte watergebied in de Atlantische Oceaan waarnemen.
©The Daily Digest
Invloed van AMOC
Volgens de auteur van de studie, Stefan Rahmstorf, hoogleraar natuurkunde en oceanografie aan de Universiteit van Potsdam (Duitsland), is de AMOC duidelijk de boosdoener achter de afkoeling van deze watermassa, omdat deze, zoals hij aan CNN vertelde, "het transport van oceanische warmte beïnvloedt".
©The Daily Digest
Afbeelding: Wikipedia
Het zwakste punt in 1000 jaar
Rahmstorf benadrukte verder dat, afgezien van deze 'koude plek', ze al voldoende bewijs hadden uit talrijke eerdere studies die wezen op de verzwakking van de AMOC, in die mate dat, zo benadrukte hij, deze zich momenteel op het zwakste punt in 1000 jaar zou kunnen bevinden.
©The Daily Digest
Heeft niets te maken met atmosferische omstandigheden
Onderzoeker René van Westen van de Universiteit Utrecht (Nederland) benadrukte ook dat de resultaten van Rahmstorfs onderzoek het idee versterken dat de afkoeling van deze enorme watermassa niet wordt beïnvloed door atmosferische omstandigheden, hoewel is aangetoond dat deze wel degelijk via die weg kan plaatsvinden.
©The Daily Digest
Gebieden waar wind en bewolking weinig invloed hebben
Van Westen verwijst in dit geval naar de bijzonderheid dat het diepe water in dit specifieke gebied ook afkoelt, ondanks het feit dat elementen zoals wind of wolken hier weinig invloed hebben.
©The Daily Digest
Eenvoudige benaderingen?
Andere deskundigen, zoals David Thornally, hoogleraar oceaan- en klimaatwetenschappen aan University College London, wijzen erop dat het nog te vroeg is om definitieve uitspraken over deze kwesties te doen. Hoewel hij erkent dat de studie het bewijs voor een verband tussen de 'koude zone' en de AMOC versterkt, stelt hij dat de gegevens slechts benaderingen zijn en geen absolute waarheid weergeven.
©The Daily Digest
De noodzaak van verder onderzoek
In een gesprek met CNN waarschuwde Thornally dat er onder wetenschappers nog steeds veel onzekerheid bestaat over wat er met deze massa koud water zou kunnen gebeuren, en benadrukte hij de noodzaak van verder onderzoek: "Ik denk niet dat (deze studie) het laatste woord over dit onderwerp is", verklaarde hij.
NASA's 'Son of Concorde' breaks the sound barrier: $247 million supersonic jet hits 713mph during test flight - paving the way for flights from London to New York in under 4 hours
NASA's 'Son of Concorde' supersonic aircraft has broken the sound barrier for the first time, paving the way for ultra–fast air travel.
The $247 million jet, dubbed X–59, hit a top speed of Mach 1.1, or 713 miles per hour (1,150 km/h), during a test flight on Friday, June 5.
Test pilot Jim 'Clue' Less took off and landed from Edwards Air Force Base, California, soaring to 43,400 feet (13,200m) before setting the new speed record
While the flight lasted just 81 minutes, this is the first step towards supersonic flights from London to New York in under four hours since Concorde was retired.
However, the space agency has plans to push its experimental aeroplane even further.
NASA administrator Jared Isaacman says that X–59 will fly again and hit Mach 1.4, or 925 miles per hour (1,490 km/h), within 'the coming days'.
These flights will test whether the jet's unconventional design really does reduce the sonic boom to a quiet 'thump' as NASA hopes.
Mr Isaacman says: 'X–59 is getting ready for its quiet supersonic debut.'
NASA's 'Son of Concorde' supersonic jet (pictured) has broken the sound barrier for the first time, hitting a top speed of 713 miles per hour (1,150 km/h)
The X–59 has been designed to solve one of the big problems with supersonic flights, which is the intolerable volume of the deafening sonic boom.
As a jet moves through the sky, it pushes the air out of the way like a boat moving through water, creating ripples in the form of sound waves.
At supersonic speeds, the plane outruns this wake of sound waves, causing the ripples to bunch up and compress into a single massive shockwave.
That means supersonic jets, like the Concorde, are constantly trailing a wake of powerful shockwaves, which are heard as a 'boom' when the craft passes overhead.
Because these booms can be as loud as 110 decibels – similar to a loud rock concert – supersonic flights are generally banned over populated areas.
To solve this problem, NASA has been working to develop 'Quiet SuperSonic Technology (Quesst)' that would muffle the boom into a muted 'thump'.
The X–59 supersonic jet is the culmination of that effort, and should make supersonic flight quiet enough to pass over populated areas.
The aircraft has been developed by American aerospace firm Lockheed Martin's 'Skunk Works' division after being awarded the $247.5 million design contract by NASA in 2016.
Test pilot Jim 'Clue' Less took off and landed from Edwards Air Force Base, California, soaring to 43,400 feet (13,200m) before setting the new speed record. Pictured: The pilot's view from inside the cockpit
It features a radically redesigned geometry in which every feature is designed to diffuse and muffle the sonic boom.
The most obvious difference from a normal jet is the thin, tapered nose, which accounts for almost a third of the plane's entire length and is shaped to break up the shockwave.
The downside of this novel design is that the cockpit is located around halfway down the length of the vehicle and doesn't have any forward–facing windows.
Instead, the single pilot uses a system of cameras and augmented reality displays, known as the eXternal Vision System, to see out the front.
According to NASA, this reduces the volume of the shockwave heard at the ground to something between distant thunder and a car door shutting 20 feet (six metres) away.
Mr Isaacman says: 'I'm grateful to the NASA team and Lockheed Martin Skunk Works for their help getting us to this point, and I hope this is the first of many collaborations as we rebuild NASA's X–plane portfolio.'
Since its first flight in October 2025, the Son of Concorde has already undergone dozens of increasingly demanding tests in a process known as 'envelope expansion'.
This first supersonic flight is just the latest milestone in that gradual process, taking NASA's quiet jet into its next phase of testing.
Part of the reason that Concorde was eventually discontinued was that the sonic boom produced by breaking the sound barrier could be extremely loud for people on the ground
During the test, the experimental aircraft was chased by a supersonic F15 jet equipped with a probe to record the shockwave
During the test, the X–59 was monitored by a NASA F 15 chase plane, which flew nearby to monitor its progress.
The loud sonic boom from the F15 covered up the sound produced by the X–59, meaning that NASA couldn't be sure how quiet it was.
However, the chase jet is equipped with a specialised probe to take initial measurements of the X–59's shock waves.
Michael Kratsios, Assistant to the President for Science and Technology and Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy, says: 'The X–59's first supersonic flight is a testament to America's enduring leadership in science, engineering.'
In the next few days, NASA will send the X–59 on its first 'mission conditions' flight, reaching a cruising speed of Mach 1.4 at 55,000 feet (16,764 metres).
While these flights will also be accompanied by a chase plane, it will be a major step towards testing the quiet sonic boom.
This test is important because those speeds and altitudes are what the X–59 will be tested at when it is allowed to fly over several US communities.
Finally, test pilots will push the jet to its absolute limit, reaching a top speed of Mach 1.6 at 60,000 feet – around twice the height and speed of a commercial airline.
According to NASA, the sonic thump produced by X–59 passing overhead will be quieter than the sound of a car door shutting 20 feet away
The X–59's aerodynamic profile has been designed so that it breaks up the shockwave formed by passing the sound barrier and is much quieter in flight. Pictured: The sonic boom from a scale model of the aircraft during wind tunnel tests
After that flight, NASA will move into the next stage of testing, focusing on its sound profile in order to verify its quiet thump capability.
The plane will be flown over populated areas of the US to see how people perceive the thump of X–59 passing overhead.
NASA says that it will share this data with US and international regulators to 'help establish new data–driven noise standards to enable a future viable market for supersonic commercial flight over land'.
In the future, that could open the door to commercial supersonic flights that don't cause major inconveniences for those on the ground.
Concorde was a turbojet–powered supersonic passenger jet that was operated from 1976 until 2003.
It had a maximum speed over twice the speed of sound at Mach 2.04 (1,354mph or 2,180k per hour at cruise altitude) and could seat 92 to 128 passengers.
It was first flown in 1969, but needed further tests to establish it as viable as a commercial aircraft. Concorde entered service in 1976.
It is one of only two supersonic transports to have been operated commercially. The other is the Soviet–built Tupolev Tu–144, which ran as a passenger aircraft only for a few years in the 1970s due to safety issues.
Concorde was the world's first supersonic airliner and operated for 27 years, but it was grounded in October 2003. Pictured is British Airways Concorde G–BOAB taking off with its landing gear still extended over the Cotswolds town of Fairford, Gloucestershire on July 20, 1996, during the annual RAF Fairford airshow
Concorde was jointly developed and manufactured by Aérospatiale and the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) under an Anglo–French treaty. Concorde's name, meaning harmony or union, reflected the cooperation on the project between the UK and France.
Concorde was retired in 2003 due to a general downturn in the commercial aviation industry after its only crash in 2000, the September 11 attacks in 2001, and a decision by Airbus, the successor to Aérospatiale and BAC, to discontinue maintenance support.
It wasn't the first plane to break the sound barrier, however; that achievement was managed by the Bell X–1, piloted by Chuck Yeager, in October 1947.
The legendary rocket engine–powered aircraft, designed and built in 1945, achieved a speed of 700 miles (1,127 kilometers) per hour.
Is the Gulf Stream about to collapse? Mysterious 'cold blob' in the Atlantic suggests key current is weakening, scientists warn
A mysterious 'cold blob' has emerged in the North Atlantic – and scientists say it indicates a critical ocean current is on the verge of collapsing.
While the rest of the Earth's oceans have grown warmer amid the building El Niño, one patch of sea southeast of Greenland has remained stubbornly chilly.
For decades, scientists have been baffled over why this 'hole' is cooling down while everywhere else heats up.
Now, a group of researchers argue that it is because the critical Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is slowing down.
AMOC is a vast network of ocean currents carrying warmth from the tropics to Europe, of which the Gulf Stream is one small part.
However, recent data suggests that human–caused climate change could be driving this system to a tipping point that could trigger its total collapse.
Were AMOC to collapse, it would plunge northern Europe into a 'new Ice Age' and trigger famines by disrupting crucial monsoon rains in Africa and Asia.
Lead author Professor Stefan Rahmstorf, of Potsdam University, told New Scientist: 'Even if, in some modelling approaches, it seems possible that the cold blob is caused by the atmosphere, in fact, the data show it is caused by the ocean.'
A 'cold blob' in the North Atlantic could be a sign that the crucial Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is slowing down
AMOC plays a crucial role in keeping the planet's current climate stable by moving heat, nutrients, and carbon around the world.
The 'engine' driving this global conveyor belt is the cold, salty waters that form in the North Atlantic around Greenland.
As this dense water sinks towards the bottom of the ocean, warm water from the Tropics is pulled northwards, and the cycle keeps the current moving.
However, scientists are concerned that fresh water from Greenland's melting glaciers is disrupting this process by diluting the water and making it less dense.
Studies have shown that AMOC has already slowed by about 15 per cent since the mid–20th century due to climate change, and could be driven into total collapse in the future.
Since a slowing AMOC would result in less warm water arriving in the North Atlantic, scientists had suggested that it could be part of the explanation for the cold blob.
However, our direct observations of AMOC only date back around 20 years, which makes drawing a strong connection challenging.
Likewise, other researchers have proposed a competing theory, arguing that the cold blob is actually being caused by changing wind conditions.
The North Atlantic 'cold blob' or 'warming hole' is a region of ocean that has been getting cooler even while the rest of the planet gets hotter
In 2022, scientists claimed that the rapid warming in the Arctic has shifted the jet stream over the cold blob region and that these strong westerly winds are drawing more heat out of the ocean.
However, a group of researchers led by Professor Rahmstorf now say they have found strong evidence linking the cold blob to AMOC's decline.
Instead of using computer–based climate models, the researchers used 'climate reanalyses', which are based on direct measurements from satellites, buoys and ships.
They found that surface heat loss has actually decreased in the cold blob since 1995, meaning that the wind is not taking more heat away.
Likewise, they discovered that the cold blob is not just cooling at the surface, but also at 3,280 feet (1,000 m) below the waves.
According to the researchers, this clearly shows that the warming hole is being caused by a change in the way ocean currents distribute heat and not by the wind.
This is vitally important because it would make the North Atlantic cold blob one of the 'early warning signals' that AMOC is weakening.
In their paper, published in Geophysical Research Letters, the researchers conclude: 'Our analysis supports the interpretation of the observed "cold blob" as a sign of a weakening AMOC.'
Scientists found that the amount of heat being lost from the surface has actually decreased over time (illustrated), meaning that it is not wind–driven heat loss causing the cooling
Researchers found that the cool spot is also getting colder beneath the surface, which suggests that it is being driven by changes in ocean currents, such as the AMOC
More immediately, this means that the cold blob could also threaten the 'subpolar gyre', a massive swirling current that surrounds the North Atlantic.
This current helps to bring salty water to the surface to feed the process of cooling and sinking that drives AMOC.
However, if the subpolar gyre failed, it would actually cool the UK and northern Europe even faster than a full AMOC collapse.
A recent Parliamentary report warned that the collapse of the subpolar gyre could create 2°C (3.6°F) and 3°C (5.4°F) of cooling over the North Atlantic, threatening the viability of agriculture in the UK.
Professor Rahmstorf warns: 'The subpolar gyre passing this tipping point could already lead to serious climate impacts in western Europe as early as in the 2040s'
When it comes to regulating global climate, the circulation of the Atlantic Ocean plays a key role.
This is due to a constantly moving system of deep-water circulation often referred to as the Global Ocean Conveyor Belt which sends warm, salty Gulf Stream water to the North Atlantic where it releases heat to the atmosphere and warms Western Europe.
The cooler water then sinks to great depths and travels all the way to Antarctica and eventually circulates back up to the Gulf Stream.
When it comes to regulating global climate, the circulation of the Atlantic Ocean plays a key role
This motion is fuelled by thermohaline currents – a combination of temperature and salt.
It takes thousands of years for water to complete a continuous journey around the world.
Researchers believe that as the North Atlantic began to warm near the end of the Little Ice Age, freshwater disrupted the system, called the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC).
Arctic sea ice, and ice sheets and glaciers surrounding the Arctic began to melt, forming a huge natural tap of fresh water that gushed into the North Atlantic.
This huge influx of freshwater diluted the surface seawater, making it lighter and less able to sink deep, slowing down the AMOC system.
Researchers found the AMOC has been weakening more rapidly since 1950 in response to recent global warming.
