The purpose of this blog is the creation of an open, international, independent and free forum, where every UFO-researcher can publish the results of his/her research. The languagues, used for this blog, are Dutch, English and French.You can find the articles of a collegue by selecting his category. Each author stays resposable for the continue of his articles. As blogmaster I have the right to refuse an addition or an article, when it attacks other collegues or UFO-groupes.
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Deze blog is opgedragen aan mijn overleden echtgenote Lucienne.
In 2012 verloor ze haar moedige strijd tegen kanker!
In 2011 startte ik deze blog, omdat ik niet mocht stoppen met mijn UFO-onderzoek.
BEDANKT!!!
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UFO'S of UAP'S, ASTRONOMIE, RUIMTEVAART, ARCHEOLOGIE, OUDHEIDKUNDE, SF-SNUFJES EN ANDERE ESOTERISCHE WETENSCHAPPEN - DE ALLERLAATSTE NIEUWTJES
UFO's of UAP'S in België en de rest van de wereld Ontdek de Fascinerende Wereld van UFO's en UAP's: Jouw Bron voor Onthullende Informatie!
Ben jij ook gefascineerd door het onbekende? Wil je meer weten over UFO's en UAP's, niet alleen in België, maar over de hele wereld? Dan ben je op de juiste plek!
België: Het Kloppend Hart van UFO-onderzoek
In België is BUFON (Belgisch UFO-Netwerk) dé autoriteit op het gebied van UFO-onderzoek. Voor betrouwbare en objectieve informatie over deze intrigerende fenomenen, bezoek je zeker onze Facebook-pagina en deze blog. Maar dat is nog niet alles! Ontdek ook het Belgisch UFO-meldpunt en Caelestia, twee organisaties die diepgaand onderzoek verrichten, al zijn ze soms kritisch of sceptisch.
Nederland: Een Schat aan Informatie
Voor onze Nederlandse buren is er de schitterende website www.ufowijzer.nl, beheerd door Paul Harmans. Deze site biedt een schat aan informatie en artikelen die je niet wilt missen!
Internationaal: MUFON - De Wereldwijde Autoriteit
Neem ook een kijkje bij MUFON (Mutual UFO Network Inc.), een gerenommeerde Amerikaanse UFO-vereniging met afdelingen in de VS en wereldwijd. MUFON is toegewijd aan de wetenschappelijke en analytische studie van het UFO-fenomeen, en hun maandelijkse tijdschrift, The MUFON UFO-Journal, is een must-read voor elke UFO-enthousiasteling. Bezoek hun website op www.mufon.com voor meer informatie.
Samenwerking en Toekomstvisie
Sinds 1 februari 2020 is Pieter niet alleen ex-president van BUFON, maar ook de voormalige nationale directeur van MUFON in Vlaanderen en Nederland. Dit creëert een sterke samenwerking met de Franse MUFON Reseau MUFON/EUROP, wat ons in staat stelt om nog meer waardevolle inzichten te delen.
Let op: Nepprofielen en Nieuwe Groeperingen
Pas op voor een nieuwe groepering die zich ook BUFON noemt, maar geen enkele connectie heeft met onze gevestigde organisatie. Hoewel zij de naam geregistreerd hebben, kunnen ze het rijke verleden en de expertise van onze groep niet evenaren. We wensen hen veel succes, maar we blijven de autoriteit in UFO-onderzoek!
Blijf Op De Hoogte!
Wil jij de laatste nieuwtjes over UFO's, ruimtevaart, archeologie, en meer? Volg ons dan en duik samen met ons in de fascinerende wereld van het onbekende! Sluit je aan bij de gemeenschap van nieuwsgierige geesten die net als jij verlangen naar antwoorden en avonturen in de sterren!
Heb je vragen of wil je meer weten? Aarzel dan niet om contact met ons op te nemen! Samen ontrafelen we het mysterie van de lucht en daarbuiten.
NASA specialists have found a way to enable the Curiosity rover to perform several tasks simultaneously. This will allow for maximum efficiency in using its energy source and extend its service life.
Curiosity’s energy budget
Curiosity recently reached a region filled with cell-like formations. These hardened ridges are believed to have been created by underground waters billions of years ago. Spanning many kilometers in this part of Mount Sharp, these formations may shed light on whether hypothetical microbial life could have survived in the depths of Mars billions of years ago, extending the planet’s habitability until it began to dry out.
Rock formations found by Curiosity that formed in the presence of water. Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
Performing this detective work requires a great deal of energy. In addition to moving and extending its robotic arm to study rocks and boulders, Curiosity is equipped with a variety of scientific instruments and heaters that require power.
Other NASA missions, such as the Spirit and Opportunity rovers and the InSight lander, relied on solar panels to recharge their batteries. However, this technology always carries the risk of insufficient sunlight. Therefore, engineers equipped Curiosity with a radioisotope generator (RITEG). Thanks to this, the rover is not affected by changes in lighting conditions. The downside is that because plutonium decays over time, charging Curiosity’s batteries takes longer each year, leaving less energy for scientific research.
More effective science
NASA engineers generally send Curiosity a list of tasks to complete one by one before the rover ends its day and takes a break to recharge. In 2021, the team began investigating whether it would be safe to combine two or three of the rover’s tasks, thereby reducing its active time.
Image taken by the Curiosity rover on July 25, 2025. Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
For example, the Curiosity radio regularly sends data and images to a passing orbital spacecraft, which transmits them to Earth. Can the Mars rover communicate with the orbital spacecraft while moving, shifting its robotic manipulator, or taking images? Combining tasks can shorten each day’s plan, requiring less time with heaters and equipment turned on and ready for use, which reduces energy consumption. Testing has shown that Curiosity is capable of doing all this safely.
Another technique is to allow Curiosity to decide when it needs to rest if it finishes its tasks early. Engineers always overestimate the duration of daily activities in case of unforeseen circumstances. Now, if Curiosity completes these actions ahead of schedule, it will go to sleep earlier.
By allowing the rover to manage its own rest time, it is possible to reduce the charging time before the next day’s schedule. Even actions that reduce the time required to complete a single task by just 10 or 20 minutes can have a significant long-term effect, maximizing the service life of the RITEG for further scientific research and exploration.
A lot remains to be done
Engineers are implementing new features in Curiosity based on their experience operating it. Several mechanical issues required a redesign of the sample collection method using a drill bit mounted on a robotic arm, and movement capabilities were improved through software updates. When the color filter stopped rotating on one of the two cameras mounted on Mastcam, Curiosity’s rotating “head,” the team devised a workaround that allowed them to capture the same beautiful panoramas.
NASA has also developed an algorithm to reduce damage to Curiosity’s wheels, which are worn down from hitting rocks. Although engineers are closely monitoring any new damage, they are not concerned. After 35 kilometers of driving and extensive research, it became clear that, despite wear and tear, the wheels are capable of serving for many more years. In combination, these measures allow Curiosity to operate as actively as before.
The Perseverance rover has discovered unusual formations that are almost perfectly spherical in shape. According to scientists, they were formed as a result of the cooling of molten material.
Spherical particles found by Perseverance in Martian soil. Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech
Spherical particles are not what you would expect to find in Martian soil. However, two decades ago, the Opportunity rover discovered spherical hematite formations (unofficially nicknamed “blueberries”) near its landing site on the Meridiani Plateau.
Now, the Perseverance rover has also managed to detect spherical particles. The discovery was made in an area unofficially named Witch Hazel Hill. Spherical formations are embedded in the bedrock and scattered throughout the area. Perseverance studied them by taking a series of images and measuring their elemental composition.
Despite their external similarity to “blueberries,” these spherical particles have a completely different composition and, probably, origin. The fragments found by Opportunity consisted of hematite minerals, and they’re thought to have formed in groundwater-rich sediments way back in Mars’ past.
For comparison, these spherical particles are composed of basalt and were probably formed as a result of a meteorite impact or volcanic eruption. When a meteorite hits the surface of Mars, it can melt rock and spray droplets of molten rock into the air. These droplets can cool quickly, solidify into spherical particles, and fall as rain onto the surrounding area. Alternatively, spherical particles could have formed from molten lava during the eruption.
The Perseverance team intends to continue searching for answers to the question of the origin of these spherical particles. If they were formed as a result of an ancient impact, they can tell us about the composition of the impactor and shed light on the formation of craters in the early history of Mars. If they were caused by a volcanic eruption, they may preserve traces of past volcanic activity in the area around Jezero crater. In any case, these spherical particles are a reminder of a dynamic period in the distant past of the Red Planet.
August 5, 2025, will be one of the shortest days in history. Meanwhile, scientists are at a loss as to the reasons for the mysterious acceleration of the Earth.
Earth. Source: NASA
The period of the Earth’s rotation around its axis (one full rotation of 360 degrees relative to the stars) lasts 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.1 seconds. This is known as a sidereal day. It explains why stars and planets rise in the east about four minutes earlier each day, and why the night sky changes depending on the season. After all, the Earth moves in its orbit around the Sun while simultaneously rotating around its axis.
But the fact is that we live according to the solar day, not the sidereal day. It is measured from noon to noon and lasts exactly 24 hours (86,400 seconds). Since official records began in 1973, the length of daylight has steadily increased, mainly due to the Moon. As it moves around the Earth, it creates friction, causing its orbit to shift further away from our planet. At the same time, the Earth’s rotational energy is transferred to the Moon, which leads to a slowdown in the Earth’s rotation and, consequently, to an increase in the length of days.
However, this situation has changed in recent years. After decades of slowing down, our planet’s rotation has accelerated — and researchers cannot provide a clear explanation for why. In 2025, they predicted three dates when the solar day on Earth would be shorter than 24 hours: July 9 (1.23 milliseconds shorter than 24 hours), July 22 (1.36 milliseconds shorter), and August 5 (1.25 milliseconds shorter). The title of the shortest day in history is currently held by July 5, 2024. On that day, the day was 1.66 milliseconds shorter than 24 hours.
A difference of just 1.25 milliseconds from the 86,400-second mark may seem insignificant, but it is indicative of global processes that we are not yet able to understand. According to one theory, global warming is to blame. On the other hand, the acceleration is caused by the slowing down of the liquid part of the Earth’s core, as a result of which the rest of the planet rotates faster.
Regardless of the reasons for the acceleration, according to scientists, if the current trend continues until 2029, then, for the first time in history, a so-called negative leap second may be added to compensate for the deviation.
Scientists pinpointed key "regulators" that help control the metabolisms of hibernators, and say the same genes might hold untapped benefits for humans.
There are genes that help to regulate metabolic changes tied to hibernation. This DNA, if targeted, could be beneficial to human health, some scientists think.
(Image credit: Flavio Coelho via Getty Images)
Hibernating mammals rely on particular genes to adjust their metabolisms as they enter that unique, low-energy state — and humans actually carry that same hibernation-related DNA.
Now, early research hints that leveraging this particular DNA could help treat medical conditions in people, scientists say.
Hibernation offers "a whole bunch of different biometrically important superpowers," senior study authorChristopher Gregg, a human genetics professor at the University of Utah, told Live Science.
For example, ground squirrels can develop reversible insulin resistance that helps them rapidly gain weight before they hibernate but starts fading as hibernation gets underway. A better understanding of how hibernators flip this switch could be useful for tackling the insulin resistance that characterizes type 2 diabetes, Gregg suggested.
Hibernating animals also protect their nervous systems from damage that could be caused by sudden changes in blood flow. "When they come out of hibernation, their brain is reperfused with blood," Gregg said. "Often that would cause a lot of damage, like a stroke, but they've developed ways to prevent that damage from happening."
Gregg and his colleagues think tapping into hibernation-related genes in people could unlock similar benefits.
In a pair of studies published Thursday (July 31) in the journal Science, Gregg and his team pinpointed key levers that control genes related to hibernation, showing how they differ between animals that hibernate and those that don't. Then, in the lab experiments, they delved into the effects of deleting these levers in lab mice.
Although mice don't hibernate, they can enter torpor — a lethargic state of decreased metabolism, movement and body temperature that typically lasts for less than a day — after fasting for at least six hours. This made mice a suitable genetic model for studying these effects.
Using the gene-editing techniqueCRISPR, the scientists engineered mice with one of five conserved noncoding cis elements (CREs) deactivated, or "knocked out." These CREs act as levers to control genes that, in turn, code for proteins that carry out biological functions.
The CREs targeted in the study lie near a gene cluster called the "fat mass and obesity-related locus," or the FTO locus, which is also found in humans. Gene variants found within the cluster have been tied to an elevated risk of obesity and related conditions. Broadly speaking, the FTO locus is known to be important for controlling metabolism, energy expenditure and body mass.
By knocking out the CREs, the researchers were able to change the mice's weights, metabolic rates and foraging behaviors. Some deletions sped up or slowed down weight gain, others turned metabolic rate up or down, and some affected how quickly the mice's body temperatures recovered after torpor, the researchers said in a statement.
This finding is "highly promising," particularly given the FTO locus plays a well-known role in human obesity, Kelly Drew, a specialist on hibernation biology at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, told Live Science in an email.
Knocking out one CRE — called E1 — in female mice caused them to gain more weight on a high-fat diet than did a comparison group with all of their DNA intact. Deleting a different CRE, called E3, changed the foraging behavior of both male and female mice, specifically changing how they searched for food hidden in an arena.
"This suggests that important differences in foraging and decision processes may exist between hibernators and non-hibernators and the elements we uncovered might be involved," Gregg said.
Unknowns to address
The study authors said their results could be relevant to humans, since the underlying genes don't differ much between mammals. "It's how [the mammals] turn those genes on and off at different times and then for different durations and in different combinations that shape different species," Gregg said.
However, "it's definitely not as simple as introducing the same changes in human DNA," Joanna Kelley, a professor who specialises in functional genomics at the University of California, Santa Cruz, told Live Science in an email. "Humans are not capable of fasting-induced torpor, which is the reason why mice are used in these studies," said Kelley, who was not involved in the work.
She suggested that future work include animals incapable of torpor, and focus on unpacking all the downstream effects of the deleted CREs. As is, the current study "definitely points the field in a new direction" in terms of how scientists understand the genetic controls driving changes in hibernators throughout the year, she added.
Drew also highlighted that torpor in mice is triggered by fasting, while true hibernation is triggered by hormonal and seasonal changes and internal clocks. So while the CREs and genes the study identified are likely critical parts of a metabolic "toolkit" that responds to fasting, they may not be a "master switch" that turns hibernation on or off.
"Nevertheless, uncovering these fundamental mechanisms in a tractable model like the mouse is an invaluable stepping stone for future research," Drew said.
Gregg emphasized that much remains unknown, including why the effects of some deletions differed in female mice versus male mice or how the changes in foraging behavior seen in mice might manifest in humans. The team also plans to research what would happen if they deleted more than one hibernation-linked CRE at a time in mice.
Down the line, Gregg thinks it could be possible to tweak the activity of humans' "hibernation hub genes" with drugs. The idea would be that this approach could yield the benefits of that gene activity — like neuroprotection — without patients having to actually hibernate, he said.
Indian LVM3 M3 on the SLP with 36 OneWeb satellites
The United States and China aren’t the only powerful, wealthy nations in the world, and they’re certainly not the only nations active in space. For example, there are the Russians, which are…kind of distracted at the moment, so for our purposes there really isn’t much to talk about there.
It seems these days that everybody wants to get a piece of the Moon for themselves, and many nations have either developed their own independent spacecraft, or took up some rideshare options available on the heavy-lift vehicles from the United States and China.
In 2007 JAXA, the Japanese space agency, launched a successful orbiter mission right around the same time that the Chinese were gearing up Chang’e 1, followed in 2008 by the Indian Space Agency’s Chandrayaan-1 mission, which was mostly an orbiter but also technically landed on the moon because the mission had an impactor that crashed (on purpose) on the lunar surface.
In 2014 we had – wait for it – Luxembourg joining the party with the Manfred Memorial Moon Mission, named after the founder of the private company that led the mission who passed away in 2014. This mission rode along with Chang’e 5 on a Long March 3C rocket, and it successfully flew by the Moon before entering an orbit that would end up sending the spacecraft crashing into the lunar surface in 2022 (we think, it’s hard to check up on that kind of stuff). This mission was notable for two reasons: one, hello Luxembourg, and two, it was the first private lunar probe to successfully fly by the moon.
In 2019 the Israeli space agency tried to send a lander, Beresheet, to the moon, and while it technically did reach the lunar surface, it wasn’t in the way they had hoped. The spacecraft, named after the first book of the Bible, suffered a failure of one of its gyroscopes during decent. Without the gyroscope, the spacecraft couldn’t orient itself properly and crashed into the lunar surface. NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter actually snapped a gruesome picture of the event.
In 2019 the Indians got another orbiter around the moon, but their attempt at a lander and rover didn’t quite make it, unfortunately.
More recently other countries have sent flybys, orbiters, and landers, including South Korea, some more from Japan, the European Space Agency, Russia, Mexico, Pakistan, and the United Arab Emirates, with the usual mix of successes and failures (which is to say, a lot of failures). For example, in 2022 the Hakuto-R Mission, led by JAXA and including a rover developed by the United Arab Emirates, had a software bug that prevented it from accurately gauging its altitude from the lunar surface. Eventually its altitude reached 0, but not in a good way.
But still, no humans. It’s hard to overstate just how much more difficult crewed missions to the Moon are compared to robotic spacecraft. So far, only the United States and China have at least somewhat plausible plans for getting humans to the lunar surface in any somewhat plausible timeline. So what are these other nations and agencies left to do?
Pick a side, that’s what.
Both nations have opened up their lunar programs to any partners willing to sign on (and follow the rules). This can go anywhere from a paid rideshare situation (we’ll give you a fraction of our payload capacity in exchange for some cold hard cash) to deals to co-develop critical mission parts.
On the NASA side, the Artemis project includes the European Space Agency, JAXA, the German Aerospace Center, the Italian Space Agency, the Israel Space Agency, the Canadian Space Agency, and the space program of Dubai.
In addition to that, NASA is out there in the world trying to get as many people to sign onto the Artemis Accords, which is an update to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty that allows for countries to use the moon for more than just looking around (as in, mining it to make money) but still have everybody get along and not start any moon wars. So far, 43 countries have signed the Accords, including Mexico, Canada, most South American countries, a good chunk of Europe, India, and Australia. The Accords state that they are “PRINCIPLES FOR COOPERATION IN THE CIVIL EXPLORATION AND USE OF THE MOON, MARS, COMETS, AND ASTEROIDS FOR PEACEFUL PURPOSES” – note the exception of the outer planets, so if you want to have your space wars, that’s where they need to be.
One notable exception to the Artemis Accords? That’s right: China. And Russia. So two notable exceptions, who unsurprisingly aren’t so keen on a plan that essentially relies on trusting the United States. In 2021 those two countries started their own party – nope, not the communist party, a space party - called the International Lunar Research Station, which on the surface is about co-creating a long-term lunar base, but since that’s decades away it’s really more about creating a counterweight to the Artemis hegemony. And since then they’ve got many other nations to sign on to their plans as well, including Azerbaijan, Belarus, Egypt, Nicaragua, Serbia, Pakistan, South Africa, Thailand, Venezuela, Kazakhstan, and…Senegal. Thank you, Senegal, I’m not sure what you’re going to contribute, but we’re glad to have you on board.
The Artemis project is always going to be led by American astronauts, and I’m sure that if China makes it back to the moon first, they’re going to make sure it’s one of their citizens to take that first step. But as plans develop and partners make their bids to be more valuable, you never know who might get to ride along and plant a flag of their own.
Astronomers have published a new image taken by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). It shows one of the most iconic regions of the sky, made famous by the Hubble Telescope.
Famous Hubble Telescope image
In 1995, scientists conducted an experiment: they pointed the Hubble telescope at a small and, as previously thought, virtually deserted area of the sky. The results of ten days of imaging amazed the researchers. It turned out that there were actually thousands of distant galaxies there. The experiment clearly demonstrated that the Universe contains orders of magnitude more galaxies than previously thought.
The Hubble Ultra Deep Field region of the sky. The photo shows 10,000 distant galaxies. Source: NASA, ESA, and S. Beckwith (STScI) and the HUDF Team
In 2003, astronomers repeated the experiment, pointing Hubble at another part of the sky in the constellation Fornax. By that time, the maintenance expedition had installed new instruments on the telescope, significantly increasing its capabilities.
Once again, the telescope did not disappoint astronomers. The famous image, dubbed the Hubble Ultra Deep Field, captured approximately 10,000 galaxies. The closest ones are about a billion light-years from Earth, and the farthest ones are at the edge of the observable Universe. They existed just 800 million years after the Big Bang.
A new look at the Hubble Ultra Deep Field
Twenty years later, astronomers decided to remake the Hubble Ultra Deep Field using JWST. It conducted observations using the Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) and the Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam). In total, the filming took 100 hours.
The MIRI Deep Imaging Survey region. Thousands of distant galaxies can be seen in the image. The image was taken in the infrared range by James Webb. Source: ESA/Webb, NASA & CSA, G. Östlin, P. G. Perez-Gonzalez, J. Melinder, the JADES Collaboration, the MIDIS collaboration, M. Zamani (ESA/Webb)
The published image shows the area known as the MIRI Deep Imaging Survey. It represents one of the deepest views of the Universe ever obtained. In total, JWST has detected over 2,500 sources in this tiny patch of sky. Among them are hundreds of extremely red galaxies, some of which are likely massive systems filled with dust clouds, or galaxies with old stars that formed at the dawn of the Universe. Thanks to JWST’s high resolution, even in the mid-infrared range, researchers can distinguish the structures of many of these galaxies, shedding light on their growth and evolution.
The colors in the image correspond to different wavelengths of infrared light. Orange and red correspond to the longest wavelengths. Galaxies of these colors have characteristics such as high dust concentration, abundant star formation, or active galactic nuclei.
Small greenish-white galaxies are particularly distant and have a high redshift. This shifts their light spectrum to the peak wavelengths of the data, which are shown in white and green. Most of the galaxies in the photo do not have characteristics that amplify the mid-infrared range, so they are brightest in the shorter near-infrared wavelengths, which are shown in blue and cyan.
Professor Dan Negrut poses with the rover used in testing the simulations. Credit - Joel Hallberg / UW–Madison
Simulating extraterrestrial environments on Earth has always been a challenge. Our planet has a pleasant atmosphere, reasonable temperatures, and a moderate amount of gravity, unlike the rest of the solar system. Or maybe that’s just because we think that way because we adapted to how it is here as we evolved here. In either case, the physical environment here makes it difficult for us to set up test environments that can accurately test probes going to other parts of the solar system. Many times, it involves vacuum chambers, air conditioners and heaters pumping hot and cold air into them, and soil simulant - lots and lots of soil simulant. But, according to a new paper from researchers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, we’ve been neglecting one important aspect of these tests, and it might be the reason Spirit eventually got permanently stuck on Mars - sand is affected by gravity too.
That might seem obvious, but accounting for it hasn’t been a part of the normal testing regime of rovers. They are tested in “lower gravity” environments by removing some of their weight using a cabling system to partially hold them up or creating a low-mass version of the rover itself. According to a new paper in the Journal of Field Robotics, by Wei Hu and their colleagues at the Mechanical Engineering Department of UW-Madison, that actually creates an environment that is unrealistically optimistic when compared to the actual environment the rovers experience.
Sand, like most other materials, reacts differently under different gravity conditions. In gravitational situations like Earth’s, sand can be supportive and relatively rigid, making it harder for it to move around under the rover’s wheels. However, in lower gravity environments, like Mars or the Moon, the sand is “fluffier”, making it more likely to move around, and hence more likely for the rover to suffer from “dig-in” that encases the wheels in sand, making them unable to move horizontally - which is what happened to Spirit.
Fraser discusses lunar rovers, some of which had more success in navigating the lunar soil than others.
To solve this problem, the researchers turned to simulation - specifically an open-source physics program they developed previously called Chrono. Testing their theory of how sand operates differently required them to model the Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover (VIPER), originally intended to go to the Moon relatively soon. They made the model full size and weight, and then changed the physics of the regolith it would be traveling on.
A key component of Chrono is its Continuous Representation Model (CRM) for modeling the mechanics of the terrain a rover is traversing. CRM uses a technique akin to fluid dynamics, called Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH), to model how sand interacts with each other, though there’s some debate in the community over whether lunar and Martian regolith can be considered “smoothed”.
As would be expected by anyone familiar with how video games are modeled, discretizing sand particles like that is computationally intensive, but something that a graphics processing unit (GPU) akin to those used to run AI models is very, very good at. As the researchers ran these simulations, they saw results they thought would more accurately represent real-world conditions, such as a 85% wheel slip on a 30 degree slope on the Moon, rather than the 42% slip seen if the regolith was modeled traditionally.
Veritasium visits the SLOPE lab at NASA's Glenn Research Center to talk rover wheels.Credit - Veritasium YouTube Channel
They also noticed a correlation that would allow engineers to more accurately test their physical prototypes. Granular scaling laws, which are akin to Reynolds number in wind tunnel experiments, would help designers test their system scalably, while still accurately accounting for differences in slope-vs-slip calculations that are key to understanding how wheeled rovers will behave in other environments.
Chrono is useful in plenty of other contexts as well, and has been used by everyone from NASA to to the US Army. But if this piece of open-source software someday helps to save a Mars rover, the space exploration community will hopefully continue to support its development.
Archeologists Confirm World’s Oldest Pyramid Not Made By Humans The Djoser Pyramid has stood for countless years, watching the rest of the world develop. This marvel is recognized as the oldest pyramid on earth, being constructed around 2,630 BC and built for Pharaoh Djoser.
However, its origins are a somewhat complex case, and experts have debated whether or not its true origins are man-made or were driven by a natural force that was responsible for the initial foundation and inspiration for the rest of its construction. Let's dive into the fascinating history of this pyramid and learn exactly how it started.
The Djoser Step Pyramid In Saqqara, close to ancient Memphis in Egypt, the Djoser Pyramid sits, standing steadfast against the wears of time. It has six tiers and four side, as pyramids usually are. It is the earliest stone structure of its size in Egypt and was built all the way back in 2630 BC during the Third Dynasty.
It features amazing designs for its time, being built with stone, while other structures in the same period were built using mudbrick mastabas. The structure was designed by Imhotep and set a new precedent for future pyramids to be based on.
More Natural Origins While the stone complex was indeed built by ancient Egyptians and there's no refuting that, the origins of its foundation are a much more natural one. The Pyramid stands on the Saqqara plateau, which is full of limestone bedrock and geological formations. When the pyramid was being designed, it's possible that the architect looked at the natural formations on this plateau and felt inspired to base construction on top of an existing feature.
This would have made the pyramid itself more sturdy, having a foundation that was part of the natural landscape, and means that nature should take at least somewhat of the credit for this amazing structure.
Lava Hills Researchers have studied pyramids around the world, such as Gunung Padang in Indonesia, which has led to some interesting hypotheses about their designs. Danny Hilman Natawidjaja of the Indonesian Institute of Sciences is of the opinion that some the core could have originally been part of a natural lava hill that ancient humans saw and used as a basis for their construction.
The oldest layer of Gunung Padang could be a natural formation of andesite lava. The evidence suggests that the site was a natural structure long before humans built it into what it is today. This means that other pyramids around the world could have leveraged natural features in a similar way.
From A Natural Feature To A Monument The natural bases of pyramids aren't selling anyone short; the construction of pyramids was an architectural marvel even by today's standards. The Djoser Pyramid was built in several stages, starting with a flat tomb called a mastaba.
Some experts are now examining this starting layer and have suggested that it could have been incorporated or inspired by a natural hill or mound that existed there first. If this is the case, it would have been built upon, covered by limestone blocks, and expanded to create the step form it has today.
Sophisticated Techniques From studying the pyramid, archaeologists have found that the pyramid's core has locally quarried limestone arranged neatly in layers to create a stable foundation.
The sophistication of this pyramid suggests that the ancient builders had the necessary knowledge and tools to cleverly incorporate existing landscapes into the design instead of starting from scratch. Ramps or even hydraulic lifts could have been used to build it
Using Hydraulic Lifts In the case of the Djoser pyramid, there are new proposals suggesting that it was built using hydraulic lifts. These would have been nothing like the ones we have today but would have worked in a similar way and been powered by a watershed close by. This would have helped to raise the enormous limestone efficiently.
Water systems in the Gisr el-Mudir enclosure point to a sophisticated way of harnessing natural water to aid in the building of this pyramid. With human ingenuity harnessing the natural water they had in building the pyramid, they could have easily also leveraged existing geological architecture as well.
Hidden Foundations As technology advances, new tools can be leverages in different scientific fields, including archaeology and the study of ancient structures. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has been a game changer when it comes to the study of the deeper parts of Pyramids. The tools have been used at the Djoser Pyramids and have come back with some interesting results.
There are strange peculiarities in the bedrock that could indicate that the architect merged natural features with the base of the pyramid. Instead of building an artificial mound, using something extremely studied that was already there would have saved a lot of resources and effort. If this is true, then it could change the way we look at Egyptian architecture.
Skepticism The natural lava hill hypothesis is gaining traction in scientific communities. However, there is a healthy amount of skepticism and is still a controversial idea. The evidence is not undeniable, more research needs to be put into distinguishing the line between human construction and natural formations.
Even at Gunung Padang, the idea is disputed. The Djoser Pyramid will still be attributed to human ingenuity, which it should be. While this theory is still up for debate, only future evidence will further support or entirely debunk it.
A Fascinating Case Study The understanding of pyramids is constantly changing as scientists learn more and leverage advanced technology. Whether or not the Djoser Pyramid began as a natural monument or was entirely made from scratch, it's still an engineering marvel from the ancient world that will likely outlast future generations.
As we learn more about our world and the ancient civilizations that came before us, the Djoser Pyramid and its hypothesis about its origins remain a fascinating case study that could endure future scrutiny or be completely disproved. Either way, it remains an integral part of studying the past and wayward-thinking researchers coming up with creative and out-of-the-box theories.
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Astronomers believe they have spotted an elusive intermediate-mass black hole shredding a distant star, and they have re-created the stellar murder in a stunning new animation.
Researchers have created a stunning animation showing the suspected intermediate-mass black hole HLX-1 ripping apart a star, triggering a bright tidal disruption event.
(Image credit: NASA, ESA, Ralf Crawford (STScI))
Astronomers think they have detected an extremely rare type of "missing link" black hole chowing down on a helpless star at the edge of a distant galaxy — and they've shared a stunning animation showing what this superbright stellar massacre may have looked like.
Black holes come in a range of sizes, from primordial singularities smaller than the sun to supermassive black holes that are up to 40 billion times more massive than our home star and hold together galaxies such as the Milky Way. There are also medium-size versions, known as intermediate-mass black holes (IMBHs), which range from 100 to 100,000 solar masses. We know little about these medium-size objects, however, as they are incredibly hard to find.
In a study published April 11 in The Astrophysical Journal, researchers reported that they'd spotted another promising IMBH candidate, dubbed HLX-1, which is located around 40,000 light-years from the center of the galaxy NGC 6099 and more than 450 million light-years from Earth.
HLX-1 is located on the outskirts of NGC 6099 galaxy, more than 450 million light-years from Earth. (Image credit: Science: NASA, ESA, CXC, Yi-Chi Chang (National Tsing Hua University); Image Processing: Joseph DePasquale (STScI))
By combining data from the Hubble Space Telescope and NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, the study team believes they have spotted a bright flash, or "tidal disruption event," caused by the black hole devouring a neighboring star. The researchers also used computer simulations to predict how this cosmic murder played out and produced an animation showing HLX-1 ripping apart — or "spaghettifying" — its stellar victim (see below).
Astronomers first saw a bright source of X-rays coming from HLX-1 in images taken by Chandra in 2009. Researchers think this bright light was a tidal disruption event, which occurs when stars get ripped apart by black holes, generating a flash of radiation. The high-energy light coming from the suspected black hole peaked in 2012 and has gradually dimmed ever since.
However, as with many other IMBH candidates, it is not 100% certain that HLX-1 is a genuine IMBH. The light could also be caused by an accretion disk — a swirling ring of superhot matter surrounding the black hole's event horizon — that is fluctuating in size. The only way to tell which explanation is more likely is to monitor the light source. If it continues to dim without additional flare-ups, then it probably generated a tidal disruption event.
Researchers believe the X-ray light coming from HLX-1 is evidence of a tidal disruption event. (Image credit: Artwork: NASA, ESA, Ralf Crawford (STScI))
In addition to being rare, IMBHs are important because of what they can tell us about other black holes. They "represent a crucial missing link in black hole evolution between stellar mass and supermassive black holes," study lead author Yi-Chi Chang, a researcher at the National Tsing Hua University in Taiwan, said in a statement.
One theory about IMBHs is that they may start as large stellar-mass black holes and eventually grow into supermassive black holes over billions of years. For this to happen, they may spend most of their lives on the outskirts of galaxies, like HLX-1, before they are catapulted into intergalactic space. Some researchers even suspect that a similar IMBH may circle the fringes of the Milky Way.
Martian glaciers consist mainly of pure water ice. This is good news for future explorers of the Red Planet, who will be able to use them as a source of water, air, and rocket fuel components.
One of Mars’ glaciers, covered with a layer of dust and rocks. Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona
Scientists have long known that there are dust-covered glaciers on the slopes of many Martian mountains. Initially, it was believed that they consisted mainly of dust and rocks and contained only 30% ice. However, research conducted in recent decades has cast doubt on this picture, showing that at least some of them are cleaner than previously thought. Now scientists have confirmed this, establishing that glaciers across the planet actually contain more than 80% water ice.
The discovery was made using the radar instrument (SHARAD) installed on board the MRO spacecraft. An international team of researchers decided to study how quickly radar waves pass through glaciers and how quickly they scatter. This data could shed light on the ratio of rock to ice.
For their research, the team selected five sites on Mars. Analysis of the collected SHARAD data revealed a surprising uniformity in the purity of these glaciers, which consist of at least 80% ice. It is covered with a layer of dust and soil.
Locations of Martian glaciers scanned by the MRO spacecraft’s radar. Source: Steinberg et al.
Researchers emphasize that the composition of glaciers is the same even in different hemispheres of Mars.This indicates that the environmental conditions in which the ice formed and remained intact were probably the same across the entire planet. Ice could have formed as a result of atmospheric precipitation (snowfall) or as a result of direct condensation due to an increase in frost. At the same time, it does not appear that ice could form as a result of water vapor from the atmosphere diffusing into subsurface layers and forming ground ice, which occurs in regions such as Alaska and Antarctica under terrestrial conditions.
The discovery plays an important role in understanding Mars’ past and the processes taking place on it. In addition, it can assist in planning future manned missions, for which accessible ice deposits may become a critical component of success.
We previously reported that brines may exist on the surface of Mars.
It is believed that, whatever the star, there is a zone around it in which a planet similar in mass to Earth will be Earth-like. But let’s see what worlds orbiting red dwarfs and blue supergiants might be like.
Exoplanetes. Source: exoplanetes.umontreal.ca
Zone of life
Often, when discussing the possibility of life near other stars, one hears that some of them are too dim for this, and some are too hot. In reality, the brightness of a star only affects the distance at which a planet must be located for life to exist on it.
It is a whole range of distances between which water can exist in a liquid state. It is also called the Goldilocks Zone. Simply falling within a certain part of it does not determine the climate on the planet. Important factors that influence it also include the mass of the celestial body, the eccentricity of its orbit, the tilt of its axis of rotation, the thickness of its atmosphere, and so on.
So, is a star merely a source of light, whose characteristics determine only the length of the year on a planet where life is possible? In general, the answer to this question is “no”, but it is worth considering each case individually.
Goldilocks Zone. Source: www.britannica.com
Stars lighter than the Sun
The Sun is considered a star of average diameter, mass, and luminosity. If you look at the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, it is difficult to disagree with this. Our star is located right in the center of the main sequence. But this is only true if we do not take into account the number of stars of a certain size in the Galaxy. More than 90% of them are smaller than the Sun. Stars larger than it are much rarer.
Excluding brown dwarfs, which occupy an intermediate position between stars and planets, the smallest stars are red dwarfs, such as Proxima Centauri, Wolf 359, Ross 154, and others close to Earth but invisible to the naked eye. You can read more about the problem of Earth-like worlds in their orbits in this article.
It should be noted that the existence of these worlds as a result of tidal locking of the “day” and “night” hemispheres is not their main feature. The fact is that this may not be the case if the eccentricity of the planet’s orbit is large enough. However, long days lasting 2-3 Earth days are inevitable.
A planet caught in a tidal wave. Source: www.newscientist.com
The constant threat of powerful flares is also not mandatory. Most planets in red dwarf systems do indeed experience them, but among these stars, there are many in which such activity is not observed. This is especially true for those who are significantly older.
However, there is one feature that is present in all planets, more or less similar to Earth, that orbit red dwarfs, and that is an extremely short year, which can last 10-20 days. As a result, there should be virtually no change in seasons.
There are two mechanisms for changing the illumination of a particular area on a planet during its rotation around a star: a change in distance from the star due to the large eccentricity of the orbit, and the inclination of the axis of rotation. A combination of these two factors is also possible. But whatever it may be on a particular red dwarf, significant long-term weather fluctuations will not occur.
Orbits of planets with different eccentricities. Source: astronomy.stackexchange.com
For this, water and air have too much thermal inertia. Combined with a very long or absent cycle of change for day and night, this will result in a very even climate. The inhabitants of such a planet may not know what winter and summer are.
Between red dwarfs and yellow stars, similar to our Sun, are orange stars. The luminosity of these stars is tens of percent of the Sun’s, and there are also many of them in the Galaxy. Examples include Epsilon Eridani, Epsilon Indi, 61 Cygni, and 70 Ophiuchi.
Orange dwarfs, like yellow ones, end their existence by first turning into red giants and then into white dwarfs.
However, no orange dwarf in the Milky Way has reached this stage of its existence yet, because it takes between 15 and 30 billion years to do so. It is precisely because of the combination of the long stable existence of Goldilocks Zone planets and their prevalence in the universe that planets near these stars are considered the best candidates for the search for extraterrestrial life.
The Epsilon Eridani system compared to the Solar System. Source: phys.org
The tidal forces of their stars still exert a strong influence on them, causing a slowdown in their daily rotation. However, to cause tidal capture, the day must be “stretched” to dozens of Earth days, which can only be achieved over many billions of years.
Orange dwarfs also have increased flare activity compared to the Sun. However, planets in the “habitable zone” in their case are still much further from the star than in the case of red dwarfs. And the explosions on their surface are not as large-scale and frequent as in the latter. Therefore, the probability of serious losses of the atmosphere and hydrosphere is quite low.
Another key feature of the climate on these planets is their short year. With a duration of 40-200 days, fluctuations in light caused by orbital eccentricity and axial tilt become more noticeable. However, if only 30-50 Earth days pass between the days of minimum and maximum insolation, the difference between summer and winter is relatively small. Most likely, over billions of years of evolution, life on these worlds has primarily adapted to daily temperature changes rather than annual ones.
Stars heavier than the Sun
As for stars whose size, mass, and luminosity exceed that of the Sun, the situation is completely different. The first thing to realize is that there are not many such stars. Within a radius of 50 light-years from the Sun, there are barely two dozen of them, compared to several hundred red and orange dwarfs.
Procyon compared to the Sun
There are no problems with tidal braking and flares in the Goldilocks Zone of these stars. Their luminosity, which is significantly greater than that of the Sun, means that they must be much further away than Earth is from the Sun. Accordingly, a year on them must last from several tens of percent to several times longer than on our home planet.
However, there are most likely no planets with a developed biosphere and a year 10 times longer than Earth’s in space. The fact is that even yellowish stars of spectral class F, whose mass is 30-60% greater than that of the Sun, complete their entire evolutionary path to becoming red giants in only 3-5 billion years.
Life on Earth needed a comparable amount of time to evolve not only humans, but also terrestrial multicellular organisms. Of course, we do not know to what extent the pace of biological evolution on our planet is typical for the entire Milky Way galaxy. But it is most likely to assume that this time does not differ much from a certain average.
Biological evolution on Earth. Source: www.britannica.com
However, the star does not instantly turn into a red giant. Its luminosity increases gradually. For example, our own Sun could render Earth uninhabitable in a billion years. In larger stars, these processes occur much faster.
That is, most likely, regardless of how large the axial tilt and orbital eccentricity of worlds orbiting stars brighter than the Sun are, these planets experience significant temperature fluctuations throughout the year. It is highly unlikely that multicellular life or life on land exists on them. And the atmosphere is most likely unsuitable for breathing, despite the presence of entirely terrestrial oceans and temperatures acceptable for human existence.
In general, judging by everything, our star is close to the upper limit of mass, beyond which complex life simply does not have time to develop. For example, large hot stars such as Sirius, Vega, and Achernar have a lifespan of just a few hundred million years. If there are planets there, then only very primitive life could have emerged on them.
Large and hot stars compared to the Sun. Source: alchetron.com
Planets near older stars
However, all of the above cases involve planets orbiting stars that are on the main sequence, i.e., undergoing a relatively stable period of their evolution. However, we may find a planet orbiting a giant or red giant at a distance that can be considered the Goldilocks Zone. They will have sufficiently long years and, in principle, may have a temperature regime conducive to the existence of life, but it must be remembered that in the past, these planets were analogous to Mars or Jupiter’s moons.
That is, for billions of years, if life existed on them, it barely flickered somewhere beneath the surface. And then, over a relatively short period of time, the influx of heat increased significantly, and conditions on them became quite favorable.
Will we see a world with forests, meadows, and perhaps cities living under a big red sun? This is a very interesting question, but we do not know the general answer. It depends on two factors: how complex organisms can arise in conditions of insufficient sunlight and, possibly, liquid water. So far, we cannot rule out either the possibility that even primitive multicellular organisms could develop in such conditions or that nothing more primitive than bacteria could emerge.
Planets orbiting a red giant. Source: NASA
On the other hand, much depends on the stage of stellar evolution at which the planet entered the Goldilocks Zone. If it is transforming into a subgiant, then in the case of stars comparable to our Sun, this process can take hundreds of millions of years, during which the surface temperature will rise quite slowly.
If by that time the evolution of life had already made some progress, then this time would be sufficient for life to give rise to a developed terrestrial biosphere. For example, on Earth, the path from primitive marine invertebrates to monkeys living in forests took only half a billion years.
However, if the planet became warm enough for life only after its sun turned into a red giant, the situation is much worse. Here, too, the changes will take millions of years, but the transition from an icy world to a scorching one can happen extremely quickly. And there will be practically no time for evolution.
Exoplanetes. Source: www.futura-sciences.com
White dwarfs may also have a Goldilocks Zone. However, it is important to remember that it is located where the outer layers of the star used to be during its red giant or even subgiant phase. Can a planet survive this? Can a new world form around a white dwarf?
Science does not provide definitive conclusions on this matter, but it is more likely that the answer to the first question is no rather than yes, and to the second question is yes rather than no. In other words, we are very likely to find a planet in the Goldilocks Zone of a white dwarf, but water is unlikely, although anything is possible. And it is highly doubtful that there is any life there. As for black holes and neutron stars, planets may exist in their orbits. But most likely, high levels of radiation make life on them impossible.
It may seem that truly Earth-like planets can only exist in the orbits of a small number of stars and that their diversity is limited. But in fact, this is not the case. Even what has been described means that there are millions of planets in the Galaxy, some of which may seem incredible to us.
Image of the Mare Tranquillitatis pit crater on the Moon. (Credit: NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University)
How can artificial intelligence (AI) be used to locate lunar pits and skylights, which are surface depressions and openings, respectively, that serve as entrances to lava caves and lava tubes? This is what arecent studypublished in Icarus hopes to address as an international team of researchers investigated using machine learning algorithms to more efficiently identify pits and skylights on lunar volcanic regions (lunar maria) of the Moon. This study has the potential to help researchers develop new methods in identifying key surface features on planetary bodies that could aid in both robotic and human exploration.
For the study, the researchers used several deep learning models to identify pits and skylights using orbital images from the Moon and Mars with the goal of identifying new lunar pits and skylights to complement the 16 that have been previously identified with the Lunar Pit Atlas. One of the pits used to train the model was the well-known Mare Tranquillitatis Pit that has been imaged several times and estimated to have a minimum radius of 100 meters (328 feet) and a depth of approximately 105 meters (344 feet). In the end, the researchers found a deep learning model called ESSA (Entrances to Sub-Surface Areas) performed the best, as it successfully identified two new skylights despite only observing approximately 1.92 percent of the lunar maria.
The study notes, “Since ESSA has surveyed just ≈0.23% of the Moon’s surface so far, there are still vast amounts of data to which it can be applied. In the context of searching for pits and skylights which relate to potential cave entrances, mare regions should still be prioritized for being fed to ESSA. Up to now, ESSA has largely been applied to smaller mare deposits, which have well-defined boundaries, such as those within impact craters. However, with sufficient time allocated for the processing of imagery, ESSA could search for pits and skylights within some of the larger Lunar maria (such as Mare Frigoris) by iterating through latitude–longitude intervals.”
As noted, lunar pits and skylights serve as entrances to subsurface lava caves and tubes that could enable future robotic and human exploration to better understand the Moon’s volcanic history while also serving as shelter for future astronauts. This is because, unlike Earth, the Moon lacks an atmosphere with a protective ozone layer and magnetic field, thus exposing astronauts to harmful solar and cosmic radiation. Lava tubes played a prominent role in the television series National Geographic Mars as a safe haven for the first astronauts on Mars. Like the Moon, Mars lacks an ozone layer and magnetic field, so the lava tubes served as protective shielding from the harsh aforementioned solar and cosmic radiation.
This study comes as NASA’s Artemis program plans to send humans back to the lunar surface in the next few years for the first time since Apollo 17 in 1972. While Artemis plans to lands astronauts on the lunar south pole, far from lunar lava caves and tubes, this study demonstrates how AI and machine learning could be used to help identify key lunar surface features, potentially including water ice deposits and lunar resources that can be used for in situ resource utilization, the former existing within deep craters at the lunar south pole.
Additionally, the use of AI and machine learning models for planetary science continue to exhibit extraordinary speed and efficiency with the goal of enhancing our knowledge of planetary bodies, for planetary bodies of all sizes and types and both in and out of our solar system.
How will AI help identify pits, skylights, and other key surface features on the Moon and other planetary bodies in the coming years and decades? Only time will tell, and this is why we science!
Artist's impression of the Moon's interior, showing its inner and outer core and magnetic field lines. Credit: Hernán Cañellas/Benjamin Weiss/MIT
According to the prevailing theory of how the Moon formed, it all began roughly 4.5 billion years ago when a Mars-sized object (Theia) collided with a primordial Earth. This caused both bodies to become a molten mass that eventually coalesced to form the Earth-Moon System (aka. The Giant Impact Hypothesis. This theory also states that the Moon gradually cooled from the top down, with the crust solidifying and arresting lava flows early in its history. However, recent findings from samples obtained by China's Chiang'e-5 probe indicate that lava existed at shallower depths longer than previously thought.
These samples obtained by the Chiang'e-5 lander were from the young mare basalt unit in the Oceanus Procellarum region, a vast lunar mare on the western edge of the near side of the Moon. The samples included 1.7 kilograms (3.7 pounds) of scooped and drilled material composed of basalt and igneous rock that formed roughly 2 billion years ago, making them the youngest samples obtained to date. These findings contradict the previous theory that the temperature of the outer layers of the Moon was too low for melting to occur in the shallow interior, and could revise theories about the Moon's early evolution.
The Chiang'e-5 samples are examples of rock formed from rapidly cooled lava, which is characteristic of the mare region from which they were obtained. To obtain an estimate of how deep this lava came from, the team conducted high-pressure and high-temperature experiments on a lava simulant with an identical composition. Based on remote sensing from orbit, previous work from Chinese scientists showed it erupted in an area with very high abundances of radioactive, heat-producing elements, including potassium, thorium, and uranium.
In large amounts, the researchers believe these elements could generate enough heat to keep the Moon hot near the surface, slowing the cooling process over time. Before this study, it was presumed that the upper mantle cooled first as the surface gradually lost heat to space, which was based largely on seismic data obtained by the Apollo astronauts. Per this theory, younger lavas like the samples obtained by the Chang'e-5 lander should have come from the deep mantle, where the Moon would still be hot. However, these findings suggest there must have been pockets in the shallow mantle that were hot enough to partially melt rock 2 billion years ago.
Using our experimental results and thermal evolution calculations, we put together a simple model showing that an enrichment in radioactive elements would have kept the Moon's upper mantle hundreds of degrees hotter than it would have been otherwise, even at 2 billion years ago.
Lunar magmatism, which is the record of volcanic activity on the Moon, gives us a direct window into the composition of the Moon's mantle, which is where magmas ultimately come from. We don't have any direct samples of the Moon's mantle like we do for Earth, so our window into the composition of the mantle comes indirectly from its lavas.
Artist's impression of the interior structure of the Moon.
Credit: Hernán Cañellas/Benjamin Weiss/MIT
This research is helping to establish a detailed timeline of the Moon's evolution, which is critical to understanding how planets and smaller bodies form and evolve. The prevailing theory is that this process begins with accretion from a protoplanetary disk, where dust and gas coalesce due to angular momentum to form planetary bodies. Initially, these bodies are extremely hot and have molten surfaces, which gradually cool to form solid bodies composed of rock and metal, with some forming envelopes of gas or volatiles like water (depending on where they form around their host stars).
The process of cooling and geological layer formation are key steps in the evolution of these bodies. Since the Moon is Earth's closest celestial neighbor, studying lunar samples is the easiest way to learn more about these processes. Said Elardo:
My hope is that this study will lead to more work in lunar geodynamics, which is a field that uses complex computer simulations to model how planetary interiors move, flow, and cool through time. This is an area, at least for the Moon, where there's a lot of uncertainty, and my hope is that this study helps to give that community another important data point for future models.
In the 1960s, Freeman Dyson proposed the idea of a hypothetical astro-structure in the form of a sphere that an advanced civilization could surround its star with in order to collect maximum energy. It was named a Dyson sphere. Later, this design was reimagined as a Dyson swarm — a bunch of space stations whose orbits are coordinated to avoid crashing into each other.
A Dyson swarm in an artist’s impression. 7Source: Eddie Guy
Despite the fact that scientists have not yet been able to find traces of such astro-structures in reality, the concept still attracts considerable interest. British scientist Brian C. Lacki from the Breakthrough Listen project wondered if these structures could outlive their creators. How long can the Dyson swarm survive without maintenance and control?
Artist's depiction of a Dyson swarm. Credit: Vedexent at Wikipedia Commons
During the simulation, Lacki calculated that for the smallest swarm around a sun-like star, consisting of 340 elements, the average time between collisions among the elements would be one million years. However, since several collisions will occur well before the median time, a Kessler syndrome-like “cascade” effect, in which the elements of the swarm will be destroyed in a series of collisions with each other, could occur in just 41,000 years. That’s not much by astronomical standards.
The time required for cascading destruction of the cluster increases significantly with increasing star radius. For a red giant with a mass equal to that of the Sun and a radius 25 times greater than the Sun’s radius, it could be 5.3 billion years, with a minimum swarm consisting of 4,800 elements. In contrast, a swarm around a small red dwarf, whose mass and radius will be 0.2 and 0.1 times that of the Sun, will disintegrate in just four months.
During the study, Lacki also found that the best option would be to place the elements of the swarm in rings around the star, with their radius increasing, similar to the location of Earth satellites at different altitudes: from low Earth orbit to geosynchronous orbit. In any case, according to Lacki’s estimates, most of the Dyson swarms should completely disintegrate within a few million years after losing control.
The US Department of Defense’s secret X-37B spaceplaneis preparing for its eighth orbital flight in August 2025. This mission carries two key experiments aimed at improving space communications and navigation. The US Space Force emphasizes that this research is critical to ensuring the security and sustainability of American orbital systems.
The secret Boeing X-37B will conduct laser experiments in near-Earth orbit. Illustration generated by AI Copilot.
“Our goal is to make the combined forces more cohesive, resilient, and ready to act in any conditions,” said General Chance Saltzman, Chief of Space Operations. “This is how we protect our country’s interests in space.”
Created by aviation giant Boeing, the X-37B has become a unique space laboratory for the Pentagon and NASA, testing technologies and maneuvers out of the public eye. Although many details remain secret, the information policy regarding spaceplane missions is gradually becoming more transparent.
Laser bridge over Earth
X-37B. Photo: Boeing
One of the mission’s flagship experiments is the demonstration of laser communication. The X-37B is designed to interact with commercial satellite networks in low Earth orbit no higher than 2,000 km above the Earth. Laser data transmission promises much higher transmission speeds and increased security compared to conventional radio waves. The key advantage is the elimination of the “point of failure.” The use of an extensive network of relay satellites makes the entire US space architecture significantly more resilient to failures or attacks.
Quantum compass without GPS
The second groundbreaking experiment is the world’s most powerful quantum inertial sensor in space. This device is designed to accurately determine the position and movement of the aircraft without the need for external systems such as GPS.
“This technology is indispensable where GPS is unavailable, which increases the resilience of our navigation against potential threats,” explains Space Force. Quantum sensors open the way not only for protecting orbital vehicles, but also for long-distance interplanetary missions and research in near-lunar space, where traditional global positioning systems are ineffective.
Launch and prospects
The launch will take place from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The specific duration of the mission has not yet been disclosed. But the previous, seventh flight lasted a record 908 days, or about 2.5 years. At that time, the X-37B successfully demonstrated aerodynamic braking to change its orbit with minimal fuel consumption.
Operational control of the mission is carried out by the Fifth Space Operations Squadron in partnership with the Space Rapid Capabilities Office. This flight is another step in utilizing the unique potential of the X-37B to test future technologies.
An astronomer in Slovakia captured the rare luminous phenomenon as it briefly flashed in Earth's upper atmosphere during a thunderstorm.
The upward-shooting red lightning, known as a sprite, appeared during a thunderstorm in Slovakia on Aug. 14.
(Image credit: Stanislav Kaniansky)
An astronomer recently captured one of the most detailed-ever shots of a rare type of upward-shooting red lightning, known as a sprite, which briefly hovered in the air like a gigantic jellyfish during a thunderstorm over central Europe.
Stanislav Kaniansky, an astronomer at the Banská Bystrica Observatory in Slovakia, snapped the sprite near his home in Látky, Slovakia, on Aug. 14, Spaceweather.com reported. The luminous, zig-zagging structure measured more than 31 miles (50 kilometers) across and lasted for just a few fractions of a second before disappearing.
Sprites, or stratospheric perturbations resulting from intense thunderstorm electrification, are created when electrical discharges from lightning shoot upward, often in addition to their normal downward trajectory. These discharges create long strands of plasma, or ionized gas, in the ionosphere — the ionized part of Earth's atmosphere that starts at around 50 miles (80 km) above Earth's surface, according to NASA.
Sprites are very hard to photograph because they are fleeting and often obscured by thick clouds. But Kaniansky's orientation enabled him to get a great look at the phenomenon. "The thunderstorm was about 320 km [200 miles] away, giving me a good view of the atmosphere just above the cloud tops," he told Spaceweather.com.
The image is "one of the most detailed pictures ever of a sprite," according to Spaceweather.com.
Sprites were officially discovered in the early 1990s when NASA's space shuttles captured the first clear images of the phenomenon. But the red lightning has proved hard to study because it is so short-lived.
Sprites are part of a group of phenomena known as transient luminous events (TLE) that are all tied to lightning. Other TLEs include blue jets, which are more powerful and energetic versions of sprites, and elves, or emission of light and very low-frequency perturbations due to electromagnetic pulse sources, which are fleeting rings of red light created when electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) from lightning hit the ionosphere.
One of the biggest scientific challenges of exploring the Solar System is the possibility of life on Mars. However, a significant number of earthlings are already convinced that it exists there. Let’s try to figure out why this is the case.
How did the idea of life on Mars originate?
Scientists are often asked whether they have finally recognized the fact that life exists on Mars. After all, the press has provided a lot of “evidence”, informing the public about mysterious canals, pyramids, the face of the Sphinx, and doors of obviously artificial origin.
Despite all the refutations, including photos taken by automated devices, people stubbornly continue to believe that there is something on the Red Planet. And the explanation for this fervent belief is historical. After all, the existence of Martians is a modern mythology that has been formed over several centuries.
Source: gaia.com
It all started in the 17th century, when scientists finally accepted the idea that other planets in the Solar System were almost the same as Earth. None of the astronomers of the time knew for sure whether the similarity was limited to the spherical shape or whether there were seas, forests, and meadows there as well.
The idea that life and even intelligent beings existed on other planets in the Solar System and on the Moon was quite acceptable. But Mars showed the greatest signs of resemblance to Earth. In 1644, the Jesuit astronomer Daniello Bartoli reported that the surface of this planet was heterogeneous, with light and dark spots. Other scientists soon confirmed this.
In 1659, the Dutch astronomer Christian Huygens attempted to make the first map of Martian spots. Among other things, it showed the dark area of Syrtis Major. Now, scientists know that it is a huge volcanic plateau covered with dark ash. At the time, it looked like a sea or ocean, so it was named after a bay near the modern coast of Libya.
Huygens was the first to see on Mars something similar to the polar caps on Earth and found that the period of the planet’s axial rotation was approximately 24 hours. A few years later, other astronomers determined the length of a Martian day to be 24 hours and 40 minutes, which is only three minutes longer than the real thing. All this indicated that the Red Planet is extremely similar to ours.
In the 18th century, the exploration of many planets put an end to the idea of life there. But the opposite was true of Mars. Confidence was reinforced, in particular, by observations of changes in the polar caps, which indicated that there was a change of seasons there, similar to the Earth’s. Even such an authority on astronomy as William Herschel argued in 1781 that Martian inhabitants must be in situations similar to ours.
Myth 1: Martian canals are man-made objects of an extinct civilization
However, the main thing was yet to come. With the advent of more powerful telescopes in the 19th century, scientists were able to see the surface of Mars more clearly, so its maps became much more detailed.
A map of Mars by Giovanni Schiaparelli, drawn between 1877 and 1886, showing the canali as thin lines. Source: NASA
In 1858, the Italian astronomer Angelo Secchi saw a network of lines on the planet’s surface that he called “canali”. In his understanding, this could mean any strait or body of water. A little earlier, he also discovered a spot on Mars that he thought was a cloud.
Astronomers were finding more and more evidence that Mars was indeed similar to Earth. In 1866, spectroscopic studies revealed the presence of water vapor in its atmosphere. At the same time, interest in scientific research, including astronomical research, was growing worldwide. So, when Giovanni Schiaparelli reported the discovery of the canals again in 1877, the world press picked up on it as a sensation and spread the belief that civilization did exist on the neighboring planet.
However, the scientific community at the time had no confidence in this. The lines on Mars were visible. But not all researchers considered them to be engineering structures. Scientists became less certain in 1892 when new spectroscopic studies revealed that the conclusion about the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere of the Red Planet was incorrect, suggesting it was more akin to the Moon.
Mars in general outline by Lowell (ca. 1914). (South of the top). Source: Wikipedia
However, it was in the 1890s that the prominent astronomer and Solar System exploration enthusiast Percival Lowell advocated the idea that intelligent life exists on Mars. Based on the fact that the Martian climate is arid, he hypothesized that an advanced civilization there had begun to build canals to provide itself with water. The version was quite logical and saved the myth of the nearest extraterrestrial civilization for many decades.
However, in the scientific world, the assumption of Mars’ habitability did not stand up to criticism. In 1907, the prominent biologist Alfred Wallace published a paper in which he not only pointed out the absence of water vapor in the Martian atmosphere but also showed that astronomers had overestimated the temperature of the planet’s surface. Wallace argued that the atmospheric pressure there was too low for water to exist in a liquid state. In the end, he became one of the first scientists to depict Mars as we know it today.
t the same time, in 1903, experiments were conducted that showed that in a chaotic image of spots, people could see straight lines due to an optical illusion. And in 1909, new images of Mars did not confirm the presence of canals.
Myth 2: Martians with big heads
However, in the mass consciousness, the Martian civilization continued to exist thanks to the development of science fiction, which paid special attention to Mars. The most important work of that time about Martians was the novel The War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells, published in 1897, at the very peak of Lowell’s theories.
Martian tripod from The War of the Worlds. Illustration by Henrique Alvim Corrêa
Wells depicted the inhabitants of Mars who decided to conduct a “special military operation” on Earth, based on their ideas about evolution. The writer suggested that the Mars civilization is much older than the Earth’s. Therefore, local intelligent beings were originally humanoids, but evolved. For humans, the main organ is the brain, which thinks, and the hand, which does something. According to H.G. Wells, they were the ones that had to evolve, and everything else had to be reduced.
In the novel, Martians are described as octopuses with large heads and no digestive system. The explanations given by the writer seemed so successful that they are still used by authors of science fiction and conspiracy theories to describe typical aliens.
Martian from The War of the Worlds. Illustration by Henrique Alvim Corrêa
A large, naked head with large eyes, a body that can be disregarded because it no longer performs any useful functions, and long, flexible fingers that are convenient for pressing keys to destroy enemies – this image is thanks to Wells.
Myth 3: The Martian “sphinx” and the pyramids
In 1965, Mariner 4 flew by Mars and showed that the planet was dry and cold and had no canals. And in 1971, Mariner 9 entered orbit around it, mapped its surface, and finally buried all ideas of a developed Martian civilization.
Photo of the Cydonia region taken by Viking 1 in 1976. Source: NASA
However, supporters of this theory found new “evidence”. On June 25, 1976, the Viking 1 spacecraft took an orbital image of a small region in the northern hemisphere of Mars that stands out for its albedo. This term refers to the ability of a surface to reflect light; the higher it is, the whiter and more brilliant it appears.
Later, the area was named Cydonia, after an ancient Greek polis located on the island of Crete. This region consists of three very different parts. The first of them is the Cydonia Colls, an area where small hills meet. But the Labyrinth of Cydonia is a chaotic jumble of valleys that intersect at different angles. The landscape of the Table Mountains of Cydonia is predominantly large elevations with flat tops and steep slopes.
t was in the latter’s image that scientists noticed something resembling a human face pointing upward. Everyone was immediately struck by the similarity of this object to the Egyptian Sphinx, so they began to call it that. Soon after, the researchers found another photo showing the Martian “sphinx” from a completely different angle, which allegedly proved that it was not an optical illusion. The face was gigantic. Its length reached two kilometers, so it was a sign of the high development of the civilization that created it.
In addition, a few kilometers from the “sphinx,” they saw something very similar to regular pyramids. The press started talking about how these were the very remains of a Martian civilization that had died out many thousands of years ago. For a long time, there were no cameras that could take new photographs of the area, and newspapers and magazines published articles about the mysterious “city” of Cydonia for almost two decades in a row. Some people even “saw” a stone tear on the face of the Martian “sphinx” and began to freely interpret its meaning.
A higher resolution photo of the Martian Sphinx taken by the Mars Global Surveyor in 2001. The inset is an image obtained in 1976 by the Viking 1 probe. Source: NASA / JPL / University of Arizona
It was only in 2001 that the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft took a new photo with much better resolution than Viking I. It clearly shows that what was thought to be a giant face carved out of stone is just a flat-topped hill, like many landforms around it. And the pyramids turned out to be sharp rocks.
Are the Martian myths over?
With the advent of high-quality images of the Red Planet’s surface taken by spacecraft in areocentric orbit, and then by rovers, talk of any traces of civilization began to subside. It is hard to talk about a great civilization of the past when almost the entire surface of Mars has been photographed and no mysterious ruins have been found there. However, this does not mean that Martian myths have disappeared forever.
The “door” photographed by Curiosity. Source: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS
People like to invent beautiful fairy tales. The story of the Martian “door” proves this. In 2022, one of the images taken by the Curiosity rover showed something that looked like a rectangular passage in the Martian rocks. Sensation lovers immediately began to hypothesize about the entrance to the dungeon, where anything could be, up to and including live Wellsian octopuses.
The scientists quickly reassured everyone: The “doors” turned out to be just cracks on which shadows fall in such a way that they appear to be completely flat. However, this is not the last time that enthusiasts have found “indisputable” evidence of the existence of intelligent life on Mars. The hoaxes will stop only after someone settles there, for example, humans themselves.
This article was published in Universe Space Tech magazine #1 (190) 2024. You can buy this issue in the electronic version in our store.
The Moon, our natural satellite, has not always illuminated Earth’s sky. Scientists have long believed that it formed after a catastrophiccollision between the young Earth and the protoplanet Theia about 4.5 billion years ago. However, new research presented at the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference has shifted that date even further back in time.
A hypothetical collision between Earth and Theia. Illustration: universetoday.com
Hypothesis of a giant collision
The theory is that Theia, the size of Mars, crashed into Earth, ejecting millions of tons of molten rock into space. These debris later combined to form the Moon, explaining its similarity to Earth’s composition and lack of its own core. But when exactly did this event take place? Estimates ranged from 4.35 to 4.52 billion years, with discrepancies attributed to more recent geologic processes like the formation of the Aitken Basin.
Key in the moon rocks
To solve the mystery, a team of scientists examined ferroan anorthosites (FAN), the oldest known lunar rocks. They used the radioactive decay of rubidium-87 into strontium-87, which “solidified” in these rocks after they crystallized. Thermionization mass spectrometry was used for the analysis: samples were heated to 1000°C, studying the ionized particles.
Moon. Photo: Unsplash
Five of the eight samples, including one 4.36 billion years old, showed stable isotope ratios, indicating that they formed immediately after the collision. The other three probably underwent chemical changes later. By modeling different collision scenarios, the scientists obtained a new date of 4.502 ± 0.021 billion years ago. That’s only 65 million years later than the birth of the Solar System!
Artemis will find the exact answer
The exact time of the moon’s formation will help us understand how the planets formed and when conditions for life appeared on Earth. Despite the errors, this work opens the way to refined models where all parameters of the space catastrophe are taken into account. Who knows – perhaps the next samples from the Artemis mission will reveal new details of this impressive story.
Do you know that the Moon moves away from the Earth by 3.8 cm every year? This means that billions of years from now, our descendants will see much less of it.
Could “comet”3I/ATLAS be a piece of alien technology? A question that might sound straight out of a sci-fi movie is now being brought to the front of the space table by Abraham (Avi) Loeb the Baird Professor of Science and Institute director at Harvard University.
VLT FORS2 ESO image of 3I/ATLAS in motion through 13 minutes - visible as a line.
Credit: ESO/O. Hainaut
One might joke that 3I/ATLAS is a spaceship watching us from a safe distance like the Orville watching us from a distance, or maybe it’s the ship of an alien coming to attack us like in the Predator.
A paper co-authored by Avi Loeb along with Adam Hibberd and Adam Crowl from the Initiative for Interstellar Studies in London, UK, explores this very hypothesis.
The paper explores the possibility that 3I/ATLAS could provide evidence to support the dark forest hypothesis. The hypothesis which was popularized by Cixin Liu’s science fiction novel The Dark Forest proposes that our cosmic neighborhood is dangerous, filled with intelligent civilizations that are hostile and silent to avoid detection by potential predators.
In this context, the silence in searches for radio signals by the SETI community is not caused by the lack of extraterrestrial intelligent civilizations, but is instead a consequence of them fearing mutual destruction.
3I/ATLAS, discovered on July 1, is the third confirmed interstellar object after 1I/’Oumuamua (2017) and 2I/Borisov (2019).
This animation shows the observations of comet 3I/ATLAS when it was discovered on July 1, 2025. The NASA-funded ATLAS survey telescope in Chile first reported that the comet originated from interstellar space.
Credit: ATLAS/University of Hawaii/NASA
Unlike typical asteroids or comets, 3I/ATLAS displays an unusual combination of features:
Retrograde yet ecliptic orbital plane: With a tilt of 175.1°, its path lies nearly flat in the solar system’s plane but travels in the opposite direction—a configuration with a probability of around 0.2%.
Unnatural size: Based on its brightness and assuming a low albedo (reflectivity), 3I/ATLAS is estimated to be aeound 20 km (12.4 miles) in diameter. This makes it over 100 times bigger than 1I/’Oumuamua and vastly larger than what models predict for interstellar debris of this kind.
Lack of cometary outgassing: Despite its comet-like designation, there are no signs of a coma or tail—raising questions about its propulsion or material makeup. Interstellar comets are expected to outgas when nearing the Sun, as 2I/Borisov did. The absence of outgassing raises the possibility that the object is either inactive (which is rare near the Sun) or not natural at all.
Striking planetary flybys: 3I/ATLAS is synchronized to approach unusually close to Venus (0.65 AU — 1 AI is the Earth-Sun separation), Mars (0.19 AU) and Jupiter (0.36 AU), with a cumulative probability of 0.005% relative to orbits with the same orbital parameters but a random arrival time.
Solar eclipse at perihelion: On October 29, 2025, 3I/ATLAS will be hidden behind the Sun from Earth’s view—a perfect opportunity for a covert reverse Solar Oberth maneuver.
The optimal point for a reverse Solar Oberth maneuver to become bound to the Sun is at perihelion. In an Oberth maneuver, the thrust of a spacecraft is applied at its maximum orbital speed, namely at periapsis, to maximize the resulting change in kinetic energy.
This applies both to accelerating to achieve Solar System escape, or alternatively to slow down from a high speed (a `reverse Oberth maneuver’) in order to break, stay bound to the Sun and potentially visit a planet like Earth. It is this optimal breaking point for 3I/ATLAS that is obscured from our view by the Sun.
Incoming direction made early detection difficult: The direction from where 3I/ATLAS is coming is oriented towards the bright Milky-Way center, where crowding by background stars made its detection difficult prior to July 2025. If astronomers were to detect 3I/ATLAS more than a year earlier, then we would have had an opportunity to launch a spacecraft that could have intercepted 3I/ATLAS along its path. By now, such an interception is not feasible with chemical rockets.
Low ∆V required for planetary intercepts: The ∆V (change in velocity) required for 3I/ATLAS to intercept Mars, Venus, or Jupiter is unusually low. It is less than 5 km/s (3 mph) to reach Mars or Venus until July 2025 and less 5 km/s (3 mph) for Jupiter in November 2025. A ∆V of 5 km/s (3 mph) is comparable to that of intercontinental ballistic missiles, making such missions feasible with conventional propulsion.
Earth, however, requires a higher ∆V — possibly why 3I/ATLAS stays away initially. The overall probability of all 3 planets aligning in this is around 0.005%.
Diagram shows the trajectory of interstellar comet 3I/ATLAS as it passes through the solar system. It will make its closest approach to the Sun in October. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
A testable theory
The authors stress that their theory is falsifiable. Should 3I/ATLAS pass through the solar system without performing unexpected maneuvers — particularly between November 21 and December 5, 2025 — the hypothesis would likely be debunked. But if anomalous accelerations or sudden trajectory shifts are observed, the debate could escalate dramatically.
“A visitor to Earth around the end of November to the beginning of December 2025, whatever form that might take, would clearly support our supposition,” the paper concludes.
What if it’s natural
While the authors admit that a natural explanation — such as a dormant comet or large asteroid — is more probable, each of those interpretations faces its own difficulties. The apparent size of the object makes it an extreme outlier among known interstellar visitors, and the absence of typical cometary activity raises questions about its physical composition.
Even if the object turns out to be natural, the calculations and simulations presented offer valuable insights for future interstellar object encounters, especially as the Vera C. Rubin Observatory is expected to detect many more in the coming decade.
Using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), an international team of astronomers announced the detection of 17 complex organic molecules (COMs) in a protoplanetary disk surrounding a distant star. This includes the first tentative detection of ethylene glycol (CH₂OH)₂ and glycolonitrile (HOCH₂CN), which are believed to be building blocks of amino acids and their precursors. While these molecules have been detected in space before, this is the first time scientists have observed them in a planet-forming disk around a protostar, which offers tantalizing clues about the origin of life in the Universe.
The organic molecules they identified were found in the disk surrounding V883 Orionis, a protostar located about 1,350 light-years away in the constellation Orion. COMs are molecules with more than five atoms and at least one carbon atom. The detection of glycolonitrile is especially significant since it is a precursor in the amino acids glycine and alanine, and the nucleotide base adenine, one of the four that make up DNA and RNA. The discovery of COMs in the protoplanetary disk of V883 Orionis has helped resolve an enduring puzzle regarding the evolution of organic molecules in star systems.
Artist's impression of the water snowline around the young star V883 Orionis, as detected with the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) in 2016.
Credit: A. Angelich (NRAO/AUI/NSF)/ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO)
The transition of a cold protostar to a young star with a protoplanetary disk is accompanied by a phase characterized by intense shockwaves and radiation that disturb gas and dust in the disk. These violent processes were thought to destroy most complex molecules that would have assembled very early in a system's history. This led scientists to propose the "reset scenario," where COMs would have to be recreated in the disks from which a system of planets, asteroids, and comets forms. As Kamber Schwarz, an MPIA scientist and co-author, explained in an MPIA press release:
Now it appears the opposite is true. Our results suggest that protoplanetary discs inherit complex molecules from earlier stages, and the formation of complex molecules can continue during the protoplanetary disk stage.
The main issue with the "reset scenario" is that COMs would not have enough time to form in significant amounts during a star's transition from the protostellar phase to a young star surrounded by a protoplanetary disk. In contrast, these findings suggest that the conditions that lead to biological processes are present early in solar evolution, rather than being restricted to individual planetary systems later. "Our finding points to a straight line of chemical enrichment and increasing complexity between interstellar clouds and fully evolved planetary systems," added Abubakar Fadul.
These findings also suggest that the abundance and complexity of COMs increase as protoplanetary disks evolve to become planetary systems, meaning that the building blocks of life are present in star systems from the earliest stages. In previous studies, astronomers identified simple organic molecules (like methanol) in stellar nurseries, the dense clouds of dust and gas that give birth to new stars. Said Tushar Suhasaria, a co-author and the head of MPIA's Origins of Life Lab, these same nurseries could contain complex compounds like those identified around V883 Orionis:
We recently found ethylene glycol could form by UV irradiation of ethanolamine, a molecule that was recently discovered in space. This finding supports the idea that ethylene glycol could form in those environments, but also in later stages of molecular evolution, where UV irradiation is dominant.
Comet C/2012 S1 (ISON). Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
Meanwhile, amino acids, sugars, and nucleobases (which make up DNA and RNA) have been found in asteroids, meteorites, and comets within the Solar System. Since the chemical reactions that lead to COMs occur under cold conditions, these same molecules surely exist in greater abundances in their interiors. While these cannot be accessed without drilling, comets experience outgassing as they draw closer to the Sun. As they grow warmer from solar heating, comets will form tails (or haloes) of gas and dust, which astronomers can study to identify the spectral signatures of organic molecules.
This process also occurs in the V883 Orionis system, where the star is still accreting gas from the surrounding disk, eventually triggering a fusion reaction in its core. During this period, the gas is heated and releases intense bursts of radiation that are strong enough to heat the surrounding disk, releasing the organic molecules detected by the team. Said Schwartz:
Complex molecules, including ethylene glycol and glycolonitrile, radiate at radio frequencies. ALMA is perfectly suited to detect those signals. While this result is exciting, we still haven't disentangled all the signatures we found in our spectra. Higher resolution data will confirm the detections of ethylene glycol and glycolonitril, and maybe even reveal more complex chemicals we simply haven't identified yet.
These findings also present the opportunity for follow-up investigations that look for molecules in other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Astronomers could identify even more evolved molecules like amino acids. If this theory is confirmed, it would reveal how the ingredients for life were distributed throughout the early Solar System, which could provide clues as to where else it might be found.
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Over mijzelf
Ik ben Pieter, en gebruik soms ook wel de schuilnaam Peter2011.
Ik ben een man en woon in Linter (België) en mijn beroep is Ik ben op rust..
Ik ben geboren op 18/10/1950 en ben nu dus 74 jaar jong.
Mijn hobby's zijn: Ufologie en andere esoterische onderwerpen.
Op deze blog vind je onder artikels, werk van mezelf. Mijn dank gaat ook naar André, Ingrid, Oliver, Paul, Vincent, Georges Filer en MUFON voor de bijdragen voor de verschillende categorieën...
Veel leesplezier en geef je mening over deze blog.