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Tweny years ago, the New Horizons spacecraft launched from Cape Canaveral. Eight and a half years later, the whole world was talking about it when it transmitted the first-ever close-up images of Pluto’s surface back to Earth. However, its adventures actually began much earlier.

New Horizons spacecraft.

Source: www.space.com

Who is interested in Pluto?

January 19 marks the 20th anniversary of the launch of the Atlas 5 rocket from the US Space Force base, which carried the New Horizons spacecraft beyond Earth’s gravitational sphere. Nowadays, it is mainly talked about in connection with the discoveries it made during its brief flyby of Pluto.

However, in reality, the interesting adventures of the probe designed to explore Pluto began long before the summer of 2015 and even long before its launch, although these adventures were a little unusual.

First, it should be noted that the first spacecraft could have reached Pluto several decades earlier. Voyager 1 could well have been that spacecraft. At least in the 1970s, during the mission planning stage, there was an idea to perform a gravitational maneuver during the flyby of Saturn, which would allow the probe to be directed towards the object that was then considered the ninth planet of the Solar System in a few years.

Voyager-1 could have been the first spacecraft to fly by Pluto.

Source: www.planetary.org

However, at that time, Pluto was considered too distant and uninteresting, so preference was given to a trajectory that allowed for better exploration of Saturn’s largest moon, Titan. However, over the next 15 years, everything changed dramatically. In 1978, Pluto’s moon Charon was discovered, unusually large and close to the planet, and in 1985, its atmosphere was discovered. All this was already worth launching a spacecraft to what seemed at the time to be the most distant body in the Solar System.

In 1989-90, NASA established a working group that developed a project called Pluto 350. It was supposed to be a truly epic mission, designed to last 15 years. Initially, the spacecraft was to head for Venus and Mercury to gain speed, then perform another gravitational maneuver near Jupiter, and only then head for Pluto.

Such a cunning plan was necessary because the speed that can be achieved by the spacecraft during launch is quite limited, and the entire time it flies to Pluto, the Sun’s gravitational pull will slow it down. It will reach its destination, but it will take several decades.

of Trajectorythe New Horizons spacecraft

That is why, without an intermediate point in the form of Jupiter, which, with the right calculations, can be turned into acceleration, it is impossible to do without. But 15 years was still too long, so NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory developed another plan called Pluto Fast Flyby. It involved flying two small spacecraft for a total of seven years and performing a gravitational maneuver near Jupiter. In fact, this plan was later implemented during the New Horizons mission.

Is the flight to Pluto justified?

However, at that very moment, in 1993, after the loss of Mars Observer, the number of people willing to pay $1 billion – the estimated cost of the mission to Pluto at the time – dropped sharply. Instead, scientists’ interest only grew. The fact is that in 1987, the planet passed its equinox, and in 1989, it passed its perihelion, i.e., the point in its orbit closest to the Sun.

In addition, Pluto’s orbit is not only highly elongated but also significantly inclined to the ecliptic. This means that the most favorable moment for launching a spacecraft from Earth was in the second half of the 1980s. This crazy celestial body completes a full revolution around the Sun in 247 years.

Pluto’s orbit.

Source: astrobites.org

This means that with each passing year, the spacecraft’s flight path would become longer and higher above the plane in which the rest of the planets in the Solar System revolve. This would mean higher costs and less equipment that could be delivered to the target.

In an attempt to save the mission, a desperate option was proposed: it would be launched by a Russian rocket, and Germany would provide funding in exchange for the opportunity to place its own sub-probe on board. The plan was to drop it onto one of Jupiter’s moons as the spacecraft flew through the gas giant’s system.

So, in discussions about the flight to Pluto, the topic arose that on its way there, the spacecraft should not only “sleep” but also explore something interesting as it flew past. But the plan did not work out, and in the mid-1990s, the project was abandoned.

Pluto Kuiper Express.

Source: Wikipedia

But not for long, because at that very moment, more and more new objects began to be discovered beyond Neptune’s orbit. The flight plan to Pluto was taken out of the drawer again and supplemented with a section in which, after exploring the planet, the probe was to fly further and take a closer look at one of the newly discovered asteroids.

The mission was renamed Pluto Kuiper Express, and only one of the two previously planned spacecraft remained, but this did not help the project. In 1999, it was rejected again. But this time, the public was on the side of the scientists, and soon NASA had to announce a new competition, which the New Horizons won: the Shedding Light on Frontier Worlds project from the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. It was this project that was implemented.

New Horizons design

Ready for launch, the spacecraft weighed 478 kg, of which 77 kg was fuel, and was about the size of a small car. It was propelled by four main rocket engines and 12 orientation engines. All of them ran on hydrazine as a single fuel.

The payload consisted of a whole set of scientific instruments. The Alice camera provided observation of objects and spectroscopy in the ultraviolet range, Ralph performed similar studies in the infrared part of the spectrum, and the main LORRI telescope was responsible for the visible range.

NewHorizons collection.

Source: Wikipedia

Also on board were the SWAP solar wind analyzer and PEPSSI. These two instruments captured all the high-energy particles that New Horizons encountered during its flight. They were designed to answer the question of how strongly solar radiation affects objects at such a distance from the sun.

The VBSDC device was responsible for studying much larger particles that the spacecraft might encounter. Also on board was the REX radio spectrometer, designed to study Pluto’s atmosphere by measuring the signal from Earth as it passed through it.

All of this was controlled by the onboard computer. Signals were sent to it from Earth via a communication system. Inside New Horizons, the temperature was maintained between 10 and 30°C.

All this required a lot of energy. Solar batteries could not be used due to Pluto’s considerable distance from the Sun. Therefore, a radioisotope thermoelectric generator with 72 plutonium “pills” was used to power New Horizons. It provided 245 watts of power.4

New Horizons radioisotope thermoelectric generator.

Source: Wikipedia

Flight to Pluto

When New Horizons finally launched into space on January 19, 2006, it was launched using the most powerful modification of Atlas 5, called 551. It has five solid-fuel boosters. Thanks to this, the spacecraft was able to accelerate to 12.4 km/s. Then the acceleration unit kicked in, bringing the speed up to 16.207 km/s.

New Horizons headed for Jupiter, but only reached it a year later, in February 2007. A lot happened during that time. Back in February 2006, engineers tested the spacecraft’s cameras and used them to photograph an asteroid that at the time was known only by its number, 132524. The distance to it was then 102,000 km. Thus, at the beginning of its mission, the spacecraft enriched our collection of celestial bodies photographed from close range.

However, on August 24 of the same year, an event occurred that was significantly less pleasant for the spacecraft team. The 26th General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union adopted a new classification of bodies in the Solar System. The reason for this was the discovery of new bodies beyond Neptune’s orbit, which gave new impetus to the study of Pluto.

Lava fountain above Io.

Source: Wikipedia

Ironically, under the new classification, Pluto was classified not as a large planet but as a dwarf planet. Eris’s discoverer, Michael Brown, was openly delighted about this. However, New Horizons team leader Alan Stern called the new classification complete nonsense.

This assessment is not surprising. If the new classification had been adopted a few years earlier, it would have been difficult for the New Horizons team to prove the importance of the project. However, the spacecraft was already flying in space and in September 2007 even began observing Jupiter.

The flyby itself, with its gravitational maneuver, took place in February 2007, and it was an extremely successful moment in terms of raising the mission’s prestige. Some spacecraft had already completed their exploration of the largest planet in the Solar System at that time, while others were still on their way to it. New Horizons turned out to be its main explorer.

Arrokoth.

Source: Wikipedia

The probe took numerous photographs of the planet itself and its moons. The images of the four largest moons were particularly interesting, as it photographed a lava fountain on Io shooting hundreds of kilometers into space. Jupiter’s atmosphere and magnetosphere were also studied.

The mission continues

After flying past Jupiter, New Horizons went into “sleep” mode. Every two to three months, engineers would wake it up and check the systems. This continued until it approached Pluto. Then the whole world started talking about the probe, and this lasted for several weeks. And then, like any sensation, it disappeared from the public eye again.

But the spacecraft’s scientific mission did not end there. It continued to explore trans-Neptunian objects and on January 1, 2019, flew past the asteroid Arrokoth, photographing and studying it. This is the first study of such a body, and it is thanks to it that we know what the outskirts of the Solar System look like.

And the New Horizons mission continues. The radioisotope generator is expected to operate until at least 2035. We can expect that it will make many more discoveries before then.

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On January 14, an unprecedented event in NASA history took place. For the first time, the aerospace administration terminated a manned space mission ahead of schedule due to health problems of one of the Crew-11 mission participants. For confidentiality reasons, NASA is not disclosing his name or details of his diagnosis. According to unofficial sources, the astronaut in question is Michael Fincke.

The Crew-11 mission crew.

Source: NASA

But although evacuation to Earth is an unprecedented event for NASA, it is far from the first such case. Yes, cosmonauts and astronauts undergo thorough medical examinations, but they are still human beings. It is no secret that even healthy people can unexpectedly experience health problems under certain circumstances. Moreover, space explorers work in extremely harsh conditions and are exposed to factors such as weightlessness, increased radiation levels, and confinement in a closed space – not to mention significant stress.

In this article, you will learn about the most famous cases in history when medical problems directly affected the course of space expeditions.

Cold and disobedience, Apollo 7

At the dawn of the space age, NASA did not have a preflight quarantine for astronauts. The Apollo 7 mission clearly demonstrated the shortcomings of this practice. Shortly after launch, mission commander Walter Schirra came down with a cold. Later, the rest of the crew also developed symptoms. Colds in zero gravity were much more severe than on Earth. Aspirin from the onboard first aid kit did not help, and it was impossible to clear their noses and ears.

The Apollo 7 mission crew.

Source: NASA

It is worth noting that Apollo 7 was a very difficult mission. It was supposed to demonstrate that NASA had recovered from the loss of three astronauts who died in a fire during Apollo 1 testing, and that after all the changes made, the spacecraft was safe for flight. The crew was under a great deal of pressure. And illness only exacerbated the situation.

From a technical point of view, the flight itself went brilliantly: the astronauts completed absolutely all of their tasks, paving the way to the Moon. The flip side of the coin was that communication between Mission Control (RKA) and the astronauts was very difficult and accompanied by a number of conflicts. The final straw was the landing. Mission Control (RKA) demanded that the astronauts put on their helmets in case of depressurization of the spacecraft. But the crew refused to do so, citing concerns that the increase in pressure could cause their eardrums to rupture due to their airways still being blocked. The astronauts wanted to be able to perform the Valsalva maneuver to equalize the pressure in their ears. As a result, they refused to obey a direct order and did not put on their helmets.

This had direct consequences. Even before the flight, Wally Schirra announced that he would soon be leaving NASA, so the aerospace administration was unable to impose any serious sanctions on him. However, for the other two crew members, Donn Eisele and Walter Cunningham, this flight was their last. NASA management decided to no longer allow astronauts who did not follow orders to fly into space.

Moon allergy

Scientists and engineers working on projects to create lunar settlements have identified a number of problems that need to be solved before colonization of Earth’s satellite can begin. But actual flights have revealed another problem that no one had thought about before, and that could seriously complicate long-term stays on the Moon. We are talking about allergies to lunar dust.

Harrison Schmitt inside the lunar module. Note that his spacesuit is covered in moondust.

Source: NASA

The fact is that lunar dust is completely different from Earth dust. It consists of very fine and extremely sharp particles – after all, there is no atmosphere or water on the Moon to smooth them out. Lunar dust is extremely sticky. It easily sticks to spacesuits and equipment, which creates a number of problems. It can also cause allergies.

Harrison Schmitt, a member of the Apollo 17 mission, saw this for himself. When he took off his spacesuit after returning to the lunar module, he developed hay fever – an allergic reaction caused by inhaling dust particles. The next day, the allergy had almost disappeared, allowing the astronaut to continue his work. However, as it soon became clear, Cernan’s case was not unique. Later, the same symptoms appeared in a person who worked with the astronauts’ spacesuits after their return to Earth.

It is possible that long-term inhalation of dust could have even more serious consequences for humans and cause lung disease. Therefore, designers of modern lunar missions are taking this factor into account and looking for ways to combat dust.

Skylab strike

Information about the so-called Skylab “strike” can easily be found on the Internet. It is claimed that on December 28, 1973, in protest against an overly busy work schedule, the station crew (astronauts Gerald Carr, Edward Gibson, and William Pogue) cut off communication with Mission Control (RKA) and spent the entire day relaxing and looking at Earth.

Skylab orbital station.

Source: NASA

What really happened? For all the astronauts at the station, it was their first flight into space. At the same time, NASA had drawn up an overly ambitious work plan for them. This led to the crew falling behind schedule and the psychological atmosphere becoming very tense. It is claimed that this is precisely why the astronauts broke down at some point and went on strike.

But in reality, everything was much more complicated. Communication was lost not for a day, but for an entire orbit. According to the astronauts, this was due to a mistake – they confused who was responsible for maintaining contact with Earth that day. The available records of the conversations also do not confirm that the crew refused to work. In fact, there was a dialogue between the crew and Mission Control (RKA) about the problems that had arisen – something like the first psychotherapy session in space. At first, the crew reported everything they did not like and what needed to be changed first. Then Mission Control (RKA) openly told the crew about everything that was bothering them.

The changes introduced after this discussion yielded results. As a result, the second half of the mission turned out to be much more productive than the first. In some respects, the crew even managed to exceed the initial plan. After this flight, NASA began to pay much more attention to the psychological aspects of space travel, realizing that they were just as important as the crew’s physical health.

The Skylab mission became the starting point for numerous medical studies devoted to human behavior in space. Its results are still actively used in the selection and training of crews for long-term expeditions. The most obvious legacy of this mission was the introduction of the practice that at least one member of a space expedition must have experience flying in orbit.

The mysterious return of Soyuz-21

Despite all the problems, the Skylab crew remained at the station until the end of their scheduled stay. The same cannot be said about the crew of Soyuz-21. In July 1976, it docked with the Salyut 5 military orbital station. It was assumed that crew commander Boris Volynov and flight engineer Vitaly Zholobov would spend 60 days aboard the station. In reality, they returned to Earth after only 49 days.

Boris Volynov and Vitaly Zholobov

The reason for the early return of Soyuz-21 is still shrouded in rumors. According to Volynov, after an emergency arose at the station, Zholobov began to suffer from severe headaches, and his condition continued to deteriorate. By the time the Mission Control Center decided to terminate the expedition early, he was unable to put on his spacesuit by himself. As for the reasons for his deteriorating health, a strange smell was cited, which was presumably caused by a nitric acid leak. Because of this, the next expedition boarded Salyut-5 wearing respirators. However, the cosmonauts did not detect any smell or leaks.

However, according to popular opinion, the real reason was the difficult psychological situation and conflict between the crew members, which led to the early termination of the mission. Later, Zholobov denied some of the rumors surrounding the flight, but at the same time stated that he had essentially taken on the problems that had arisen for Volynov, who was in command of the mission.

Astronaut sickness

While there are many gray areas in the history of Soyuz-21, there is no doubt about the main reason for the early termination of the Soyuz T-14 expedition: cosmonaut Vladimir Vasyutin fell ill. While on board the Salyut-7 station, he developed symptoms of prostatitis.

The Salyut 7 orbital station.

Source: Wikipedia

The treatment administered on board the space station after consultation with doctors was unsuccessful. The cosmonaut’s health deteriorated rapidly. As a result, on November 21, 1985, Soyuz T-14 returned to Earth. Instead of the planned 200 days, the flight lasted only 64 days.

According to the widely accepted version, Vasyutin knew about his illness and concealed it, attempting to treat himself, and the responsibility lies solely with him. However, there is also an alternative opinion, according to which, given the thoroughness of medical examinations, regardless of his wishes, the cosmonaut would never have been able to hide a chronic illness from doctors, and that this was an acute illness that suddenly developed during the space flight.

Regardless of whether Vasyutin knew about his illness or not, it led to the failure of a very ambitious expedition and the cancellation of a number of missions planned for Salyut 7. Subsequently, only one spacecraft visited the station, after which it was mothballed and, a few years later, fell out of orbit. Shortly after returning to Earth, Vasyutin himself was removed from the cosmonaut corps due to health reasons and never flew into space again.