The Juno spacecraft circling in Jovian space is the planetary science gift that just keeps on giving. Although it's spending a lot of time in the strong (and damaging) Jovian radiation belts, the spacecraft's instruments are hanging in there quite well. In the process, they're peering into Jupiter's cloud tops and looking beneath the surface of the volcanic moon Io.

Members of Juno's science team talked about the craft's discoveries at a meeting in Vienna, Austria, on April 29th. “Everything about Jupiter is extreme," said Juno principal investigator Scott Bolton. "The planet is home to gigantic polar cyclones bigger than Australia, fierce jet streams, the most volcanic body in our solar system, the most powerful aurora, and the harshest radiation belts. As Juno’s orbit takes us to new regions of Jupiter’s complex system, we’re getting a closer look at the immensity of energy this gas giant wields.”

Artist's concept of the Juno spacecraft at Jupiter.

Courtesy NASA.

The recent studies the team reported on were conducted with several instruments, including the Microwave Radiometer (MWR), the Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper (JIRAM), and the Radio and Plasma Wave Sensor (WAVES). Because Juno is in a variable orbit, scientists can get continued information about all aspects of the planet and its moons. “One of the great things about Juno is its orbit is ever-changing, which means we get a new vantage point each time as we perform a science flyby,” said Bolton. “In the extended mission, that means we’re continuing to go where no spacecraft has gone before, including spending more time in the strongest planetary radiation belts in the solar system. It’s a little scary, but we’ve built Juno like a tank and are learning more about this intense environment each time we go through it.”

Probing Jovian Clouds

The MWR and JIRAM essentially provide temperature probes of the clouds on Jupiter and the maelstrom of volcanic activity on Io. Early in 2023, Juno's radio instruments began sending radio signals between Earth and Juno through Jupiter's clouds. As the radio signals passed through, the atmospheric layers "bent" the waves. Scientists measure the "bending" and get precise information about the temperatures and densities of the gases in the Jovian atmosphere.

This composite image, derived from data collected in 2017 by the JIRAM instrument aboard NASA’s Juno, shows the central cyclone at Jupiter’s north pole and the eight cyclones that encircle it. Data from the mission indicates these storms are enduring features.

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI/ASI/INAF/JIRAM

The radio occultation soundings showed that the area of Jupiter's north polar stratospheric cap is a pretty balmy 11 degrees Celsius (about 51 F). The region is surrounded by high-speed winds that clock a decent 161 km/hour (100 mph). In addition, Juno's JunoCam and JIRAM have observed the motion of a giant polar cyclone, along with eight smaller ones that circle around it. These seem to stick to the polar region, although they tend to drift and migrate toward the poles in a cycle. As they move together, these interact and slow down over time. On Earth, most cyclones also drift to the poles, but break up as they lose access to moist air and warm temperatures that normally sustain them. Atmospheric modeling based on the Jovian cyclonic actions could well help explain how similar storms work on Earth and other planets.

“These competing forces result in the cyclones ‘bouncing’ off one another in a manner reminiscent of springs in a mechanical system,” said Yohai Kaspi, a Juno co-investigator from the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel. “This interaction not only stabilizes the entire configuration, but also causes the cyclones to oscillate around their central positions, as they slowly drift westward, clockwise, around the pole.”

Digging Into Io

Everybody knows about Io, the most volcanically active world in the solar system. It orbits Jupiter embedded inside the strong Jovian radiation belts, and its volcanoes spew out materials that end up in those belts. So, it makes sense that the Juno team uses everything at its disposal to learn more about that volcanic activity. That includes the MWR and JIRAM instruments, which combine to take infrared imagery and temperature measurements of Io on and beneath the surface.

“The Juno science team loves to combine very different datasets from very different instruments and see what we can learn,” said Shannon Brown, a Juno scientist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. “When we incorporated the MWR data with JIRAM’s infrared imagery, we were surprised by what we saw: evidence of still-warm magma that hasn’t yet solidified below Io’s cooled crust. At every latitude and longitude, there were cooling lava flows.”

A massive hotspot — larger than Earth’s Lake Superior — lies just to the right of Io’s south pole in this annotated image taken by the JIRAM infrared imager aboard NASA’s Juno on Dec. 27, 2024, during the spacecraft’s flyby of the Jovian moon.

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI/ASI/INAF/JIRAM

Io seems to rearrange itself over time through its intense volcanism. The activity fractures the surface and coats it with lava, often described as "turning itself inside out." Planetary scientists need more information about this constant churning. The Juno data shows that about 10 percent of the surface has remnants of slowly cooling lava lying just below the solid surface and that it acts like a car radiator, moving heat from the interior to the surface before it cools down. In addition, the JIRAM data show evidence for the most energetic eruption Io has experienced to date. It occurred in late 2024 and continues to belch lava and ashes out across the surface. Upcoming observations on May 6th should reveal whether or not the eruption is ongoing.

Juno Continues

The Juno mission has been probing the Jovian system since 2016. It was originally planned to end in 2017. However, it's now in an extended mission through September 2025. Eventually, its orbit will degrade under the strong pull of Jupiter's gravity. That will pull the spacecraft in, and eventually it will disappear into the Jovian atmosphere. Data from this mission will help guide future visits to Jupiter by spacecraft such as the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE) and the Europa Clipper, which is scheduled to arrive at its target in 2030.

For More Information

• NASA’s Juno Mission Gets Under Jupiter’s and Io’s Surface
• Juno Mission

Video: Juno measurements of Io's volcanic hotspots and the most energetic eruption ever measured.

What are the best methods to explore Valles Marineris on Mars, which is the largest canyon in the solar system? This is what a recent study presented at the 56^th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference hopes to address as a team of researchers investigated how helicopters could be used to explore Valles Marineris, which could offer insights into Mars’ chaotic past. This study has the potential to help scientists and engineers develop new methods for studying Mars’s history and whether the Red Planet once had life as we know it.

For the study, the researchers conducted a field investigation using unmanned aerial vehicles at the Alvord Hot Spring within the Alvord Desert in Oregon from July 27 to August 3, 2024. The goal of the field investigation was to ascertain the effectiveness of using UAVs for collecting scientific data regarding soil moisture, geologic outcrops, and topography. In the end, the researchers successfully collected spectral data and microwave radiometry data for soil moisture changes throughout the day, spectral data for outcrops that identified plagioclase phenocrysts (crystals formed from volcanism), and producing digital elevation models of Mickey Buttes, which is approximately 600 meters (2,000 feet) high.

The study concludes with, “Two more field deployments are planned for summer of 2025 and 2026. Year 2 field work will focus on collecting additional data about the temporal variability of the AHS plume, spectral properties of the plagioclase-rich basalts, and testing of autonomous navigation over Mickey Buttes. Year 3 field work will focus on collecting any additional required science data and testing science operations strategies.”

As noted, Valles Marineris is the largest canyon in the solar system, measuring more than 4,000 kilometers (2,485 miles) long, 200 kilometers (124 miles) wide, and 7 kilometers (4.3 miles) deep. For context, its length is equivalent to the United States coast-to-coast, and its depth is more than half the distance of the deepest oceans on Earth. Given Mars’ size, Valles Marineris stretches approximately one-quarter of the planet’s circumference.

The exact processes responsible for the formation and evolution of Valles Marineris have been debated for decades and are ongoing to this day. While early hypotheses proposed liquid water carving out the massive canyon, more recent hypotheses propose crustal spreading, with the East African Rift used as an Earth analogy. Hundreds of millions—potentially billions—of years ago, intense volcanism formed the Tharsis Bulge, which consists of the Red Planet’s largest volcanoes, some of whom are the largest volcanoes in the solar system (Olympus Mons). The total weight of Tharsis allegedly caused a massive crack in the crust, resulting in the formation of Valles Marineris.

Due to the exposed geologic and volcanic layers stretching in multiple directions throughout Valles Marineris, this provides a unique opportunity for scientific collection that could help scientists gain enormous insight into the geologic and volcanic history that contributed to the formation of Valles Marineris. This recent study demonstrates that helicopters or UAVs could be used to conduct this scientific analysis given the extreme difficulty of using traditional rovers, which the study notes as being “impossible”.

This study comes after NASA successfully landed and tested its Ingenuity helicopter, which was the first spacecraft to conduct a powered flight on another world. After landing inside the undercarriage of the Perseverance rover, Ingenuity proceeded to exceed expectations regarding flight duration and distance in both altitude and from the rover. This includes 72 total flights, approximately 129 minutes of flight time, approximately 17 kilometers (11 miles) of distance flown, 24 meters (79 feet) maximum altitude, and max ground speed of 10 meters per second (22.4 miles per hour).

How will helicopters help explore Valles Marineris in the coming years and decades? Only time will tell, and this is why we science!

• As always, keep doing science & keep looking up!

What kind of spacecraft can be used to explore and study the subsurface lunar environment? This is what a recent study presented at the 56^th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference (LPSC) hopes to address as an international team of researchers discussed the benefits of a mission concept called LunarLeaper, which will be designed to traverse and analyze the various aspects of the lunar subsurface environment, including moon pits and lava tubes.

Here, Universe Today discusses this incredible research with Dr. Anna Mittelholz, who is a lecturer in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at ETH Zurich and lead author of the study, regarding the motivation behind the study, significant takeaways, next steps in developing LunarLeaper, and the importance of exploring the subsurface lunar environment. Therefore, what was the motivation behind the study?

Dr. Mittelholz tells Universe Today, “The primary motivation behind LunarLeaper was to enable agile and versatile access to challenging lunar terrain—particularly regions that traditional rovers struggle to reach, like steep slopes, rugged ejecta fields, and skylights leading to lava tubes. Paired with this outstanding science questions around subsurface lava tube was motivation enough!”

For the study, the researchers discussed several aspects of the LunarLeaper mission concept, including mission objectives, detailed breakdown of data collection, and how LunarLeaper could lay the foundation for future lunar exploration missions. For mission objectives, LunarLeaper will explore and analyze lunar lava tubes for their robotic and human exploration potential, specifically regarding if they could be used for human habitation. Additionally, LunarLeaper will investigate lunar volcanic and geologic history and how the lunar regolith (dust) played a role in the Moon’s evolutionary history.

Most importantly, the researchers analyzed how LunarLeaper could operate on the Moon, specifically navigating the uneven subsurface terrain of lava caves. While the lunar surface has uneven regions from craters, boulders, volcanic fields, and mountains, the environment of lava caves is even more unpredictable from collapsed channels, loose rocks, or sharp edges. This occurs when lava cools and is frozen in place in awkward locations, creating an environment that is difficult to navigate for humans or robots. Therefore, what are the most significant takeaways from this study?

“One key takeaway is that legged locomotion—or in our case, leaping—on the Moon is not only feasible but potentially game-changing for planetary exploration,” Dr. Mittelholz tells Universe Today. “Our simulations show that a hopping robot can navigate uneven terrain much more effectively than wheeled systems. Additionally, we’ve highlighted our specific mission architectures where this approach could provide unique scientific returns, especially in subsurface exploration.”

Mission concepts often take years to go from an idea to reality, comprised of a myriad of steps to ensure all mission aspects are fully operational and capable of performing in a space-based environment. This includes designs, tests, re-designs, more tests, system integrations to ensure each system can communicate with each other, more tests, countless meetings regarding funding and timetables, even more tests, until it’s finally ready for launch. NASA uses their Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) system to gauge progress on a mission plan and rate this progress, accordingly. Therefore, what are the next steps in developing LunarLeaper?

Dr. Mittelholz tells Universe Today, “We just passed our mission concept review and are now mostly focused on increasing the TRL of key systems, such as the locomotion and autonomous navigation.”

While NASA’s Apollo program proudly conducted the most in-depth surface exploration of the Moon, robotic and human exploration of the Moon’s surface began with missions conducted by NASA and the Soviet Union with the Luna and Ranger missions, respectively. As NASA geared up for Apollo, they conducted the Surveyor missions to better understand landing on the Moon’s surface.

After Apollo 17 in 1972, NASA entered a decades-long lull in lunar surface exploration but has still successfully conducted orbital exploration that has helped scientists gain immense insight into the Moon’s formation and evolution, and specifically its geologic and volcanic history. These orbital missions have identified more than 200 moon pits that could potentially lead to lava caves on the Moon while enabling future missions to explore the subsurface lunar environment. But what is the importance of exploring the subsurface lunar environment?

“From an exploration perspective, subsurface lava tubes are of incredible importance as they provide natural shelter for humans, protecting against harsh lunar conditions such as extreme temperature fluctuations, solar radiation, and micrometeorite impacts,” Dr. Mittelholz tells Universe Today. “These environments could serve as safe havens for long-duration missions, offering a potential foundation for sustainable lunar habitation. From a science perspective, the pits provide direct access to the Moon’s subsurface stratigraphy, potentially exposing pristine geological layers that have remained unaltered for billions of years. Studying these layers could yield critical insights into the Moon’s volcanic history, thermal evolution, and the broader processes that shaped the early solar system.”

How will LunarLeaper help scientists better understand the subsurface lunar environment in the coming years and decades? Only time will tell, and this is why we science!

As always, keep doing science & keep looking up!

Links:

• LPSC Abstract - https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2025/pdf/1957.pdf
• Dr. Anna Mittelholz Personal Website - https://www.annamittelholz.com/
• LunarLeaper - https://www.lunarleaper.space/

The Solar System consists of our star, the Sun, and everything bound to it by gravity; the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, along with dwarf planets like Pluto, dozens of moons, and millions of asteroids and comets. The planets orbit the Sunin elliptical paths, with the inner four being rocky terrestrial worlds and the outer four being gas and ice giants many times larger than Earth.

Artist impression of our Solar System

(Credit : Cacti Staccing Crane)

Our fascination with hunting down more planets in the Solar System has until now not revealed any strong candidates. With Pluto having been classed as the 9th planet for many years, the hunt was on for Planet X. With the demotion of Pluto in 2006, the idea of Planet Nine was first proposed in 2016 by astronomers Batygin and Brown. Its existence is inferred from unusual orbital clustering of several trans-Neptunian objects, suggesting they're being influenced by a large, unseen planetary body. Despite extensive searches using powerful telescopes, Planet Nine has remained theoretical as direct observation has proven elusive.

In a study led by Terry Long Phan and published in Cambridge University Press, the team searches for Planet Nine candidates by using two far-infrared all-sky surveys, IRAS and AKARI, whose 23-year separation allows detection of Planet Nine’s expected orbital motion (~3′/year). The search uses the AKARI Far-Infrared Monthly Unconfirmed Source List (AKARI-MUSL), which is better suited for identifying faint, moving objects than the standard AKARI Bright Source Catalogue. Researchers estimated Planet Nine’s expected flux and motion based on assumed mass, distance, and temperature, then applied positional and flux criteria to match sources between IRAS and AKARI. They identified 13 candidate pairs with angular separations corresponding to heliocentric distances of 500–700 AU and masses of 7–17 Earth masses.

Infrared Astronomical Satellite in space simulator at JPL

(Credit : NASA)

After a rigorous analysis and selection process, including visual inspection of images, the team identified one strong candidate pair, where the IRAS and AKARI sources showed the expected angular separation (42′–69.6′) and were not detected at the same position in each survey. The AKARI detection probability map confirmed the candidate’s consistency with a slow-moving object, showing two detections on one date and none six months earlier. However, IRAS and AKARI data alone are insufficient to determine a precise orbit so there will need to be follow-up observations with DECam, which can detect faint moving objects within about an hour of exposure, are suggested to confirm the candidate and fully determine its orbit, aiding in understanding the solar system’s evolution and structure.

The search for Planet Nine continues to push the boundaries of astronomical discovery using advanced survey techniques and paring it with careful analysis. While the identification of a promising candidate is an exciting step forward, confirmation will require further observations and continued collaboration across the astronomical community. If Planet Nine is ultimately detected, it would mark a monumental addition to our understanding of the Solar System.

Source :

•  A Search for Planet Nine with IRAS and AKARI Data

RELATED VIDEOS

Magnetars are among the rarest - and weirdest - denizens of the galactic zoo. They have powerful magnetic fields and may be the source of fast radio bursts (FRBs). A team of astronomers led by European Space Agency researcher Ashley Chrimes recently used the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) to track one of these monsters called SGR 0501+4516 (SGR0501, for short, and SGR stands for Soft Gamma Repeater). It's whipping through the Milky Way at a rate as high as 65 kilometers per second. The big challenge was to find its birthplace and figure out its origin.

At first, astronomers thought it could be related to a supernova remnant called HB9. After a great deal of study, it turns out SGR0501 is not the product of a massive core-collapse supernova, but Chrimes and her colleagues aren't completely sure of its origin, which makes it even more rare and strange.

“Magnetars are neutron stars — the dead remnants of stars — composed entirely of neutrons. What makes magnetars unique is their extreme magnetic fields,” said Chrimes. "Our definite conclusion is that SGR0501 did not originate in HB9. However, since there is no other clear birth site or smoking gun for a different origin, the alternatives are all plausible and we can’t yet say which is the most likely."

Unraveling the Track of the Traveling Magnetar

There are only about 30 known magnetars in the Milky Way Galaxy. These dense balls of neutrons aren't very big - only about 20 km (12 miles) across. Their tiny sizes belie the incredibly strong magnetic fields that they generate. As the folks at NASA like to say, those fields are strong that if one flew by Earth at the distance of the Moon, all our credit cards would be wiped out. Even worse, if we flew out to visit the magnetar on its way, our ship and astronauts would be torn apart.

Luckily, we only observe them from a distance. Chrimes estimates that it most likely lies about 2,000 parsecs (~6520 light-years) away from us. SGR0501 was originally spotted in 2008 when the Swift Observatory detected brief but bright flashes of gamma rays in its direction. It also looked like it was close to the supernova remnant HB9. Naturally, astronomers assumed the two might be related, since known magnetars are the result of core collapse supernova explosions.

The separation between the magnetar and the center of the supernova remnant on the sky is just 80 arcminutes, or slightly wider than your pinky finger when viewed at the end of your outstretched arm. However, things didn't add up after astronomers studied the magnetar with HST. A decade-long set of Hubble observations resulted in images that helped astronomers figure out the magnetar's path as it travels. By tracking its position, the team charted the object’s apparent motion across the sky. Both the speed and direction of SGR 0501+4516’s movement showed that it could not be associated with the nearby supernova remnant. Tracing the magnetar’s trajectory thousands of years into the past showed that there were no other supernova remnants or massive star clusters that could have produced it.

So, What Formed It?

So, if SGR0501 didn't form in a supernova explosion, what else could form a tiny ball of neutrons with a super-strong magnetic field? That was the challenge the team faced next. It turns out that there are a couple of non-supernova ways to make magnetars. One is by merging two lower-mass neutron stars. That would create the larger, stronger SGR0501.

An artist's conception of the merger of two neutron stars to form a more massive one. Such a collision would also emit radio bursts and other emissions.

Courtesy ESO/University of Warwick/Mark Garlick

The other way is by something called accretion-induced collapse. For that, you need a binary star system with a white dwarf as one of the components. As it pulls in gas and material from its companion, it can get greedy and take too much. That destabilizes the white dwarf and leads to a massive explosion. “Normally, this scenario leads to the ignition of nuclear reactions, and the white dwarf exploding, leaving nothing behind. But it has been theorized that under certain conditions, the white dwarf can instead collapse into a neutron star. We think this might be how SGR 0501 was born,” added co-investigator Andrew Levan of Radboud University in the Netherlands and the University of Warwick in the United Kingdom.

How are Fast Radio Bursts Connected to Magnetars?

The birth of a magnetar is a pretty powerful event that gives off the kind of brief but strong emissions that characterize fast radio bursts. If SGR0501 formed from a marger or accretion-induced collapse, that might explain the phenomenon of FRBs. These are very short (on the order of less than a millisecond) that don't always re-occur (in other words, they're transient flashes in the sky). Many FRBs occur outside our Milky Way, but some are also detected within the Galaxy.

“Magnetar birth rates and formation scenarios are among the most pressing questions in high-energy astrophysics, with implications for many of the universe’s most powerful transient events, such as gamma-ray bursts, super-luminous supernovae, and fast radio bursts,” said Nanda Rea of the Institute of Space Sciences in Barcelona, Spain. Magnetars that form through accretion-induced collapse could provide the kinds of short, powerful bursts of radio waves that characterize FGBs. In particular, that could explain the FRBs seen in ancient stellar populations too old to have massive stars that could explode as supernovae. Since there are other magnetars to study, the team is planning to use HST for further observations of these weirdly magnetic stellar remnants.

For More Information

• NASA’s Hubble Tracks a Roaming Magnetar of Unknown Origin
• The Infrared Counterpart and Proper Motion of Magnetar SGR 0501+4516
• arXiv version

The discovery of exoplanets has transformed astronomy since the early 1990s. Using methods like transit photometry and radial velocity measurements, scientists have identified over 5,000 planets beyond our Solar System, revealing an incredible range of worlds from scorching gas giants to potentially habitable Earth-sized worlds. Space telescopes like Kepler, TESS, and James Webb have increased these discoveries, allowing us to study distant planetary atmospheres.

The James Webb Space Telescope has revolutionised our view of exoplanets

(Credit : NASA)

One particular type of exoplanet, the super-Earths have masses between Earth and Neptune, typically 2-10 times Earth's mass. They are absent from our Solar System but seem to be common elsewhere. Even within this classification, these worlds display remarkable diversity; some rocky with thin atmospheres, others with thick gaseous envelopes. Many orbit in their stars' habitable zones, raising possibilities for liquid water, though their stronger gravity and often tidally locked rotation would create distinctly alien conditions.

A recent study published in Science reveals that super-Earths are common throughout our Galaxy. The international research team, including astronomers from the Center for Astrophysics at Harvard & Smithsonian, discovered a particularly notable super-Earth orbiting its star at a distance greater than Saturn is from our Sun, a region where previously only massive planets had been found.

Illustration of the inferred size of the super-Earth CoRoT-7b (center) in comparison with Earth and Neptune

"We found a 'super Earth'... in a place where only planets thousands or hundreds of times more massive than Earth were found before," explained CfA Fellow Weicheng Zang, the study's lead author. This discovery highlights how dramatically different other planetary systems can be from our own Solar System and contributes to a broader investigation measuring planetary masses relative to their host stars, enhancing our understanding of planetary populations across the Milky Way.

This groundbreaking discovery of a distant super-Earth is part of a comprehensive study that has revealed new insights about planetary populations across the Milky Way by measuring planet masses relative to their host stars. Using microlensing (a technique where light from distant objects is amplified by intervening bodies) researchers could detect planets at large distances from their stars, comparable to the Earth-Saturn orbital range. This represents the largest study of its kind, examining about three times more planets and including worlds approximately eight times smaller than previous microlensing-detected samples.

This study also reveals super-Earths are at least as common as Neptune-sized planets throughout our galaxy, significantly advancing planetary science through advanced observational techniques. As instruments like the James Webb Space Telescope continue characterizing exoplanet atmospheres, astronomers edge closer to understanding planetary formation and the potential for extraterrestrial life. The discovery of such diverse planetary systems challenges our assumptions and suggests a Universe filled with planets of varied sizes and compositions in unexpected orbital arrangements. This expanding cosmic census not only deepens our astronomical knowledge but helps us better understand Earth's place in the Cosmos.

Source : 

• Astronomers Find Far-flung “Super Earths” Are Not Farfetched

Lately, there's been plenty of progress in 3D printing objects from the lunar regolith. We've reported on several projects that have attempted to do so, with varying degrees of success. However, most of them require some additive, such as a polymer or salt water, as a binding agent. Recently, a paper from Julien Garnier and their co-authors at the University of Toulouse attempted to make compression-hardened 3D-printed objects using nothing but the regolith itself.

Getting things into space is expensive, so it should be no surprise that any 3D printing technology that requires shipping large amounts of things from Earth is at a disadvantage. Various projects, like one being run by a company called AI Spacefactory, utilize additives like polymers that must be made on Earth and then shipped to the Moon before being combined with regolith in situ.

Dr. Garnier hoped to get around that requirement by using selective laser melting (SLM) on a specific type of regolith analog. Known as Basalt of Pic d'Ysson (BPY), this volcanic rock is collected from the Pic d'Ysson, an ancient, extinct volcano in France. It started growing in popularity as a lunar regolith simulant in the early 2000s due to its chemical and mineral composition similarity to basaltic rocks found on the Moon itself.

Lunar regolith will also be a massive pain for explorers in the beginning, as Fraser discussed with Dr. Kevin Cannon

BPY has already been the target of several studies in lunar 3D printing. ESA researchers have published a paper detailing a "solar sintering" technique that uses the Sun's power to fuse PBY powder. Project MOONRISE, which we've reported previously, also used BPY as a feedstock in its zero-gravity 3D printing applications.

However, most of those studies have found that the BPY wasn't up to snuff when 3D printed, at least in terms of the compression strength of the resultant material. Despite the Moon's lower gravity, there are still stresses on the structures of buildings and equipment on the Moon. If a material's compressive strength can't handle that weight, even in the lower gravity, then it's not much use as a building material.

Measurements for the compressive strength of 3D printed BPY vary dramatically based on the type of 3D printing technique used. Powder Bed Fusion processes, which are regularly used to print metals on Earth, had a compressive strength of 4.2 MPa, slightly more than a standard masonry brick. However, that was with a porosity of almost 50% - meaning nearly half the structure was full of holes. Combining 3D printed BPY with a geopolymer binder can increase its strength, but at the cost of requiring the geopolymer to be shipped from Earth.

What might we manufacture on the Moon? Fraser discusses that question with Dr. Alex Ignatiev

The researcher DR. Garnier and his co-authors focused on trying to uncover what properties of the BPY could lead to better mechanical properties. They varied characteristics like whether the powder was primarily "crystalline" or "amorphous". Crystalline powder has a very ordered structure, with some properties, such as compressive strength, varying widely depending on the direction the ordered crystal structure points. On the other hand, amorphous powder is much more disordered, with its physical properties being the same in all directions.

Experiments showed a doubling in the compressive strength of powder that was 100% crystalline compared to powder that was 100% amorphous, highlighting the importance of the regolith structure selected to build the building materials of any future lunar base. 

Optimizing that mix between amorphous and crystalline structure remains on the list of things to do for future work, as well as optimizing the size of particles in the feedstock and the parameters used in the SLM process to create the final material. There's still a long way to go before astronauts can print something usable on the surface of the Moon. But as the date for humanity's return draws closer, it's probably only a matter of time before a mission does make use of the resources available on our lunar neighbor - and they might do so by melting it with a laser.

Learn More:

• J Garnier et al - Selective laser melting of partially amorphous regolith analog for ISRU lunar applications
• UT - MOONRISE: Melting lunar regolith with lasers to build structures on the Moon
• UT - NASA Sends a 3D Printer for Lunar Regolith and More to the ISS
• UT - What Could We Build With Lunar Regolith?

There's no better word for this image of the Sun than Spectacular, which means something impressive, dramatic, or remarkable that creates a spectacle or visual impact. It comes from the Latin word spectaculum, which means a show, spectacle, or public exhibition. Ancient Romans would agree with the word choice if you could somehow show the image to them.

This composite image of the Sun was constructed from 200 individual images captured by the ESA's Solar Orbiter. It shows the Sun's corona, its million-degree atmosphere, in UV. The spacecraft captured the photos on March 9th, 2025, when it was about 77 million km from the Sun.

The Solar Orbiter pointed at different regions of the Sun in a 5x5 grid. During each pointing, the spacecraft captured six high-resolution and two wide-angle images with its Extreme Ultraviolet Imager, an instrument designed to study the Sun's chromosphere and Corona.

The grey region shows the 5x5 grid in one position on the Sun's surface.

Image Credit: ESA & NASA/Solar Orbiter/EUI Team, D. Berghmans (ROB) LICENCE CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO

The image shows coronal loops, solar prominences, and filaments. Interested readers can download a high-resolution image, allowing them to zoom in on incredible detail.

It's easy to lose yourself in the incredible details of the image. The looping structures on the Sun's limb are prominences. They're plasma and magnetic field structures that have their roots in the photosphere and extend into the corona. They can last weeks and even months, extending for hundreds of thousands of kilometres. Sometimes, they detach from the Sun and become coronal mass ejections (CMEs).

When CMEs strike Earth, they can trigger geomagnetic storms that, if strong enough, can damage power grids and cause other mayhem. That's one of the primary reasons scientists study the Sun. CMEs and the constant solar wind are collectively called space weather.

Studying the Sun also helps scientists understand stellar physics and stellar evolution. Many of the Sun's processes, like nuclear fusion and plasma dynamics, are present elsewhere in the Universe, making the Sun a natural laboratory for observing those processes.

If you'd like to download the large, high-res image, visit this.

The Moon's surface is covered by impact craters, ranging from microscopic pits to massive basins over 1,000 kilometres across. These craters formed primarily during the Late Heavy Bombardment period about 4 billion years ago, when the inner Solar System experienced an intense period of asteroid and comet impacts. Unlike Earth, where weathering, erosion, and tectonic activity continually reshapes the surface, the Moon lacks an atmosphere and significant geological activity, allowing these impact features to remain preserved for billions of years. This remarkably preserved cratering record serves to capture crucial history of the formation and evolution of our Solar System.

Lunar craters over the South Pole

(Credit : NASA)

During the formation of craters a significant quantity of the ejected lunar material achieves the Moon’s escape velocity and reaches Earth. Studying these rocks helps us to understand how material moves between the two bodies. A team of researchers have turned their attention to this study and their paper has recently been published. The research, led by Jose Daniel Castro-Cisneros utilises better computer models than previous studies to track how Moon debris reaches Earth.

The study uses simulations to examine more starting conditions over longer time periods to better estimate how much lunar material reaches Earth and whether it contributes to near Earth objects. The team also hoped that by studying Moon debris trajectories, they would be able to piece together Earth's impact timeline and how it affected life and geology. They are also especially interested in objects like Kamo'oalewa, believed to be between 36-100 metres in diameter orbiting near Earth that might actually be a piece of the Moon.

Previous studies of lunar ejecta were improved upon by using the REBOUND simulation package to track particles from the Moon for 100,000 years. Unlike earlier work that used separate phases, the team simultaneously model Earth and the Moon using a more realistic ejection velocity distribution. They recorded data every five years and collision events defined as ejecta reaching 100 km above Earth's surface, providing a more comprehensive picture of how material transfers from the Moon to Earth.

Crater Tycho displaying its wonderful system of rays thought to be lunar ejecta.

The model employed, used simplified vertical impacts, though natural oblique impacts would direct more material toward Earth at lower angles, the approach simplified the process. Current environmental conditions were assumed but historically, when the Moon was closer and experiencing heavier bombardment (over 1.1 billion years ago), even more lunar material would have reached Earth. Future research should incorporate oblique impact models and ancient orbital configurations to better understand early Earth-Moon material exchange.

The team were able to conclude that, following lunar impacts, Earth collects about 22.6% of the ejected material over 100,000 years, with half of these collisions occurring within the first 10,000 years. The collision rate follows a power-law distribution over time (a relationship where a change in one quantity results in a proportional relative change in another) independent of the initial size of those quantities. Material launched from the Moon's trailing side has the highest Earth collision probability, while the leading side produces the lowest. When hitting Earth, lunar ejecta travel at 11.0-13.1 km/s and predominantly strike near the equator (with 24% fewer impacts at the poles). These impacts are nearly symmetrically distributed between morning and evening hours, peaking around 6 AM/PM.

This research significantly advances our understanding of lunar-Earth material exchange, showing that nearly a quarter of lunar impact ejecta reaches Earth—half within just 10,000 years. The findings about equatorial impact concentration and the importance of lunar launch location reveal previously unknown patterns in this process. These results enhance our understanding of the Earth-Moon system's shared impact history while supporting the lunar origin hypothesis for objects like Kamo’oalewa.

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• Lunar impact ejecta flux on the Earth

Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) are rocky bodies orbiting our Solar System that pass relatively close to Earth's orbit. Scientists have identified over 30,000 NEOs ranging from small boulders to massive rocks spanning several kilometres in diameter. These celestial bodies are of particular interest to astronomers not only for their scientific value in understanding the formation of our Solar System but also because they pose potential impact hazards to our planet. Space agencies like NASA continuously monitor these objects through programs such as the Near-Earth Object Surveillance Mission, calculating their trajectories to provide early warnings of possible collisions.

Near Earth Object Comet Hartley-2 captured by NASA's EPOXI mission

(Credit : NASA/JPL-Caltech/UMD)

Despite significant advances in asteroid detection technology in recent decades, important gaps remain. Ground-based survey programs like the Catalina Sky Survey and Pan-STARRS have collectively discovered over 90% of near-Earth asteroids larger than 1 kilometre, significantly reducing the risk from globally devastating impacts. However, detection rates drop dramatically for smaller objects, with less than 40% of potentially hazardous asteroids in the 140-meter range currently cataloged. Detection challenges include limitations of ground-based telescopes (affected by weather, daylight, and atmospheric interference), blind spots near the sun, and the inherently dark, low-albedo nature of many asteroids.

A Catalina Sky Survey Observatory at dusk at Mount Lemmon Observatory in the Santa Catalina Mountains near Tucson, Arizona

(Credit : Daniel Oberhaus)

International and U.S. defence protocols have identified the urgent need for rapid-response spacecraft reconnaissance capabilities, particularly for asteroids around 50 meters in diameter—objects large enough to cause significant regional damage yet small enough to evade detection until they're dangerously close. Even after the completion of advanced survey initiatives like NEO Surveyor and the Rubin Observatory, approximately half of these 50-meter objects will remain undiscovered until they're nearly upon us. This sobering reality means that for many potential impact scenarios, a quickly deployed flyby mission may represent our only chance to gather critical data before impact.

The Rubin Observatory against the Milky Way

(Credit : Rubin Observatory/NSF/AURA/B)

In a recent paper authored by Nancy L. Chabot and team from Johns Hopkins University, they assert that a planetary defence flyby reconnaissance mission must demonstrate capabilities to quickly reach a small ~50-meter NEO, determine its Earth impact probability, and gather essential physical data to inform decision makers. This presents significant technical challenges, including managing flyby speeds up to 25 km/s and high solar phase angles while collecting crucial data from such a small target.

The core principle of planetary defence is that we don't choose which asteroids threaten us—we must be prepared to respond to whatever object presents a danger. Therefore, the team argues that the mission's true purpose isn't simply demonstrating asteroid flyby technology, but developing robust capabilities specifically tailored for the small, short-warning-time objects most likely to require rapid space-based studies, an essential advancement in our planetary defence readiness.

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• A Mission to Demonstrate Rapid-Response Flyby Reconnaissance for Planetary Defense