Mars is well known for its seasonal dust storms, which occur when the southern hemisphere experiences summer. Periodically, these storms grow to engulf the entire planet and can last for months, wreaking havoc on robotic missions. Smaller regional storms are far more common on Mars, as are swirling columns of air and dust (aka. dust devils). NASA's Perseverance rover recently took pictures of several dust devils on the rim of the Jezero crater. Some of these images were stitched together to create a short video of a larger dust devil consuming a smaller one.

These images were taken by the rover's navigation camera on January 25th when the rover was exploring the location called "Witch Hazel Hill." The rover was about 1 km (0.6 mi) from the two dust devils, the larger of which was approximately 65 m (210 ft) wide, while the smaller, trailing dust devil was roughly 5 m (16 ft). The captures were part of an imaging experiment conducted by Perseverance's science team to learn more about the planet's atmospheric dynamics. Two other dust devils can also be seen in the background at the left and center of the video (shown below).

Like dust devils on Earth, these weather patterns are formed by rising and rotating air columns. They begin close to the ground, where the air is heated by contact with the warmer ground, then rises through the cooler air above. Meanwhile, cooler air moves in to occupy the space near the surface, which causes the rising air to rotate and pick up speed. This process also kicks up dust from the surface, creating the swirling columns of dust and air that meteorologists call "convective vortices" or dust devils.

Mark Lemmon, a Perseverance scientist at the Space Science Institute (SSI), explained in a NASA press release:

"Convective vortices — aka dust devils — can be rather fiendish. These mini-twisters wander the surface of Mars, picking up dust as they go and lowering the visibility in their immediate area. If two dust devils happen upon each other, they can either obliterate one another or merge, with the stronger one consuming the weaker. If you feel bad for the little devil in our latest video, it may give you some solace to know the larger perpetrator most likely met its own end a few minutes later. Dust devils on Mars only last about 10 minutes.”

Martian dust devils were first photographed from space by NASA's Viking orbiters, which studied Mars in the 1970s. The Pathfinder mission, consisting of a lander and the Sojourner rover, was the first to image a dust devil on the surface. Subsequent orbiters and rovers, like the Spirit and Opportunity rovers and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), have taken images of these weather patterns from the surface and space. The Curiosity rover also took multiple images of dust devils in the Gale Crater, some of which were used to create a video.

Since landing in the Jezero Crater in 2021, Perseverance has also observed dust devils and even recorded what they sound like using its SuperCam microphone. Said Katie Stack Morgan, a project scientist for the Perseverance rover at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory:

"Dust devils play a significant role in Martian weather patterns. Dust devil study is important because these phenomena indicate atmospheric conditions, such as prevailing wind directions and speed, and are responsible for about half the dust in the Martian atmosphere."

Learning more about these swirling columns of air is vital to understanding the dynamics of Mars' atmosphere. It could also lead to predictive models, allowing scientists to know where they might occur in advance. Capturing these features is presently a matter of luck and timing, which is why Perseverance routinely monitors in all directions for them.

Further Reading: 

• NASA

Sometimes, a brief update is all that is needed to keep the public interested in major projects. That's precisely what John Baker and James Keane of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory provided to the 56th annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference held in Texas last month. Their brief paper showcased the ongoing development of the Endurance autonomous rover, which was more thoroughly fleshed out in a massive 296-page mission concept study back in 2023. But what has the team been up to since then?

Before getting to the details of current work, it's best to understand the original purpose of the mission. Endurance is a response to the Planetary Science Decadal Survey, which listed developing an autonomous rover to explore the area around the lunar south pole as the highest priority for NASA's Lunar Exploration and Discovery Program. In its current iteration, Endurance will traverse over 2,000 km of the South Pole-Aitken basin, one of the most scientifically interesting parts of the Moon.

It's also the part most likely to attract human visitors as part of NASA's plan to return to the Moon. Endurance will be ready, having collected up to 100 kg of samples along the way for hand-off to the humans who will be joining it. AI will also play a central role in the rover, helping it navigate and even helping to decide what rocks to sample.

Fraser discusses why the lunar south pole - the target of Endurance - is so important.

So, what has the development team, led by Dr. Keane and Mr. Baker, been up to since the original project announcement? Quite a lot, apparently. One of the major milestones was developing a basic system design and then having an artist render what it would look like operating with an astronaut. While looks are nice, it's the underlying engineering that will really enable Endurance.

There were three major steps in those directions. First, the team has been working to utilize different data sources about the Moon to map out a planned path for the rover. 2,000 km is quite the distance, and the lunar south pole isn't particularly hospitable. Navigating around boulders and crevasses is the standard operating procedure for any planetary exploration rover, but Endurance will have to do it 10 times faster than any of its predecessors to complete its mission.

To do so, AI will be needed. Perseverance, the most capable rover launched to date, used a relatively limited AI platform to navigate around Jezero Crater on Mars. However, advances in the field have skyrocketed the technology's capabilities since then, and JPL scientists have taken advantage of it. They implemented a code update to a test rover called Athena that would allow it to navigate semi-autonomously at the speed required by Endurance. It even did so at night, which is particularly important on the Moon. 

Water is one thing that is expected to be found at the pole - as Fraser explains.

Athena itself wasn't the only demonstration platform for the technology, though—the researchers also built the Exploration Rover for Navigating Extreme and Sloped Terrains, or ERNEST, rover test bed, which looks much more similar to the system design of Endurance. It's about half the size of the full rover but will enable testing of the various subsystems of its larger-scale successor.

Even with all the technical advances, there is still some basic science to get right. The next major step for Endurance is implementing a Science Definition Team for the project. This team will fully define the science objectives of the mission, allowing the team to fully scope out the engineering challenges for the rover's further development.

Given budget cuts across the US federal government, the Artemis program's future is still uncertain. However, as long as there are still people employed at JPL, scientists and engineers will still be hoping to create Endurance or something like it. With luck and continued funding, one day, it will roam the surface of our nearest neighbor and travel where no rover has gone before.

Learn more:

• J Baker & JT Keane - STATUS UPDATE ON ENDURANCE: A LUNAR SOUTH POLE–AITKEN BASIN SAMPLE RETURN AND EXPLORATION ROVE
• JT Keane et al - Endurance Concept Study Report
• UT - A Rover Could Weave its Way Between Patches of Sunlight on the Lunar South Pole
• UT - NASA Stops Work on VIPER Moon Rover, Citing Cost and Schedule Issues

RELATED VIDEOS

In the coming years, NASA will send astronauts to the Moon for the first time since the end of the Apollo Era. These missions will lead to the creation of permanent infrastructure that will allow for regular trips to the lunar surface. An important aspect of this long-term plan is to develop components that can be reused as much as possible. This includes the Orion spacecraft that will transport the astronauts to lunar orbit (and back), the Lunar Gateway that will accommodate crews and a reusable lander to travel to and from the surface.

Unfortunately, the main launch vehicle for the Artemis Program, the Space Launch System (SLS), is an expendable system. While the Orion crew capsule is reusable, the European Service Modules (ESM) - an integral part of the Orion spacecraft that returns the crew to Earth - is not. In a recent paper, an international team of scientists identified how the ESM could be reused. Rather than letting them burn up in Earth's atmosphere, as planned, they recommend that the ESMs use their power and propulsion capability to conduct valuable scientific research.

The study was led by Carol Raymond, a researcher at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the principal investigator of the Europa Clipper ICEMAG instrument team, and the deputy principal investigator of the Dawn mission. She was joined by multiple colleagues from JPL, the Washington University in St. Louis, the German Aerospace Center (DLR), the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Airbus Defence and Space, the Leibniz-Institute of Evolution and Biodiversity Science (MfN), and the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI).

The ESM is a key element of the Orion spacecraft, providing power, propulsion, attitude control, thermal control, and payload support. The module is vital to NASA's Artemis Program, ensuring astronauts reach the Moon and return to Earth. After the separation of the Crew Module, the current plan is to allow the ESMs to burn up in Earth's atmosphere. As the authors indicate, this would be a waste since the ESM still has capabilities long after it has fulfilled its primary mission.

By leveraging these capabilities, the authors argue that the ESMs could provide low-cost opportunities for lucrative scientific research and multiple mission profiles. While the current designs for the ESM do not include scientific instruments, the mass capabilities allow for scientific payloads. Their work builds on a previous scientific workshop hosted by JPL in the summer of 2024, where US and European participants met to discuss the benefits of extended missions using repurposed ESMs after they complete their primary mission.

The concepts they considered were based on three categories: 1) no augmentation of the ESM, 2) minimal augmentation, and 3) low-to-moderate augmentation. Possible mission architectures were also considered, leading to a list of over thirty concepts.

Local Missions

The authors indicate that a minimally augmented ESM could accommodate up to 300 kg (660 lbs) of scientific instruments and be used to study near-Earth asteroids (NEAs) and the Moon. Regarding NEAs, these spacecraft could serve as observer missions, conduct flybys, and rendezvous with asteroids. This could potentially enable the study of unexplored classes of NEAs that could contain water and metals.

Another concept they suggest is using the ESM as a large kinetic impactor to the Moon and NEAs. Regarding the former, an ESM could be directed toward one of the Moon's Permanent Shadowed Regions (PSRs). Similar to the Chandrayaan -1 Moon Impact Probe (MIP) and the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), which revealed the presence of water ice on the Moon, this mission would excavate subsurface material and create a plume of material that could be observed by other spacecraft (possibly another ESM).

It could also be used to evaluate NEAs that could impact Earth someday, known as potentiallyhazardous objects (PHOs). It could also deflect PHOs, similar to the Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) mission. With a dry mass seven times larger than the DART mission, a repurposed ESM could deflect much larger bodies that periodically cross Earth's orbit.

Long-Range Missions

Other mission profiles include the exploration of Mars' moons, Phobos and Deimos. In this case, repurposed ESMs could conduct flybys or even land on these moons, providing the first sample analyses to learn more about their composition and place of origin. This has the potential to confirm theories that Phobos and Deimos are bodies that were kicked out of the Main Belt and were eventually captured by Mars' gravity.

Another possibility is to send a repurposed mission to Venus, consistent with recent recommendations from the Venus Exploration Analysis Group (VExAG). They propose sending a long-term communications asset to Venus to replicate the success of the Mars Relay Network. According to the authors, an ESM could be equipped with radio software and placed into a high-altitude orbit around Venus, supporting future orbiters and surface missions.

The authors stress that the main priority for each ESM mission is to accomplish its primary mission objectives for the Artemis program. However, the scientific benefits of repurposed ESMs are worthy of consideration, and the team hopes that their paper will stimulate discussion and inform future planning.

Further Reading: 

• URSA

The 2025 Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, which took place from March 10–14 in The Woodlands, Texas, witnessed some very interesting proposals for space exploration and science. In addition to bold mission concepts, scientists presented exciting opportunities for potential research that addresses major questions. Not the least of which was "How can humans survive in space and extraterrestrial environments"? One study in particular presented how the study of tardigrades could help address the challenges involved.

The study was conducted by Isadora Arantes, a NASA ambassador and astronaut candidate; and Geancarlo Zanatta, an Associate Professor at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul. As they indicate, tardigrades (aka. "water bears") have become the focus of considerable research in recent years. These extremophiles are renowned for their exceptional resilience to hostile environments. This includes temperatures ranging from -271°C to over 150°C, pressures exceeding 1,200 times atmospheric levels, desiccation, and intense ionizing radiation.

This has made them a pivotal model for astrobiological research and the potential for life beyond Earth. According to Arantes and Prof. Zanatta, specific proteins like Dsup (Damage Suppressor) are key to their resilience. This protein mitigates DNA damage caused by radiation exposure by forming a protective shield around genetic material, reducing double-strand breaks and preserving genomic integrity. For the sake of their study, they conducted simulations of the molecular dynamics of Dsup proteins using Gromacs software.

Their results show how the protein prevents genetic mutations by dissipating radiation and minimizing DNA disruptions. Beyond Dsup, they also investigated heat shock proteins (HSPs) and antioxidant enzymes, which maintain protein stability during thermal stress and mitigate oxidative damage caused by high pressure and radiation (respectively). As they wrote, these findings are indicative of what types of lifeforms may exist in extreme environments beyond Earth:

"[F]indings demonstrate that tardigrades' resilience mirrors potential life forms in extreme extraterrestrial environments, such as Mars, Europa, and Titan. Mars, with its radiation-rich environment and episodic liquid water, and the icy moons Europa and Titan, with subsurface oceans and cryogenic conditions, serve as benchmarks for understanding extremophile survival. For example, the stability of proteins in Titan’s subsurface ocean, as explored in related studies, suggests the plausibility of life in aqueous-ammonia mixtures under cryogenic conditions."

Beyond astrobiology, research into tardigrade adaptation has applications in biotechnology that could make humans more resilient. This includes improving radiation resistance, protecting against extreme cold in human cells, and engineering crops to survive in extreme climates. Arantes and Prof. Zanatta add that these applications "highlight the broader relevance of extremophiles in addressing challenges on Earth while contributing to the scientific foundation for future space missions."

They also note that further research involving integrated computational and experimental approaches is crucial to uncovering extremophile survival mechanisms. This has the potential to advance our understanding of life's resilience in extraterrestrial environments.

Further Reading: 

• USRA

Human beings evolved on Earth under the 1G pull of gravity. Travelling out into space has profound effects on the body, challenging it in ways that Earth-bound life never does. Microgravity or weightlessness causes muscle atrophy and bone density loss, as the body no longer needs to support its own weight. There is further damage from the prolonged exposure to cosmic radiation which increases the risk of cancer and can damage the nervous system. In addition to this, astronauts experience fluid shifts that lead to vision problems and even cardiovascular changes. Of course this is just the physical aspect but there is a psychological impact too from the isolation and confinement which just adds another level of complexity. Understanding the impacts of space travel is what has driven a team of scientists to try and learn more.

Astronauts exercise for around 2 hours every day on board the ISS

(Credit : NASA)

The team led by Rukmani Cahill from the Blue Marble Space Institute of Science have published their findings in the Public Library of Science. They explored wanted to explore if bone loss during spaceflight in Low Earth Orbit is primarily due to the microgravity induced unloading on weight-bearing skeletal sites.

To test this they sent a plucky bunch of mice off to the International Space Station for 37 days as part of the NASA Rodent Research-1 experiment. The team were then able to analyse the bones from the mice on their return to Earth using microcomputed tomography, a high resolution 3D imaging technique very similar to hospital CT scans but on a much finer scale. They were able to study the bone structure and composition and hoped to understand how spaceflight would effect the integrity of their skeleton.

NASA’s Rodent Habitat module with both access doors open

(Credit : NASA/Dominic Hart)

Their study showed that there was significant bone loss in the femur of the mice but not in vertebrae. This suggests that Low Earth Orbit radiation or systemic stresses aren't major contributors to bone degradation. Interestingly, the microgravity environment actually seemed to accelerate the transformation of cartilage in the rounded upper end of the thigh bone into bone tissue! This seems to indicate that space conditions may promote premature progression of secondary bone formation during late skeletal maturation stages at 21 weeks.

The research also showed a surprising benefit of the ISS Rodent Habitat design: control mice housed in these special wire-mesh enclosures down on Earth maintained or increased their bone mass, while those in standard laboratory cages showed significant bone deterioration. The team attribute this to the enclosures 3D structure, which encourages more elaborate movement patterns increasing mechanical loading on weight-bearing bones, a natural stimulus for maintaining healthy bone density. The outcome demonstrates how environmental design can surprisingly have a positive impact on bone health even under normal gravity conditions.

Concluding their paper, the study reveals that bone loss in space primarily affects weight-bearing sites in nearly mature female mice, while muscle-activated areas like the spine remain largely unaffected. This confirms mechanical unloading as the main culprit rather than radiation or other factors relating to space travel. The team also concluded that microgravity unexpectedly accelerates bone formation in femoral head growth plates, potentially leading to premature cessation of bone lengthening growth, a previously unknown effect of skeletal unloading in space environments.

Source : 

• 37-Day microgravity exposure in 16-Week female C57BL/6J mice is associated with bone loss specific to weight-bearing skeletal sites

RELATED VIDEOS

NASA and China plan to send astronauts and taikonauts to Mars in the coming decades. As the next step beyond lunar exploration, all major space agencies hope to send crewed missions there at some point. This should come as no surprise since Mars is the most potentially habitable planet in the Solar System beyond Earth. However, the challenges of sending humans to the Red Planet are legion, including the distances involved. Using conventional propulsion, it would take a mission six to nine months to reach Mars, during which time crews will be exposed to microgravity and elevated radiation levels.

In addition, human explorers will face multiple hazards upon arrival. These include the lower gravity (about 38% that of Earth), radiation, and Martian regolith. Much like lunar exploration, scientists are concerned about the long-term health effects of exposure to this fine, toxic dust. According to a recent study led by researchers from the University of Southern California (USC), long-term exposure to Martian dust could lead to various health problems, including chronic respiratory problems, thyroid disease, and more. 

The research was led by Justin Wang, a medical student at the Keck School of Medicine of USC and an officer in the US Navy Medical Corps. He was joined by fellow researchers from Keck USC, the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics (LASP) at the University of Colorado Boulder, the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), and the Astromaterials Acquisition and Curation Office at the NASA Johnson Space Center. That paper that describes their findings recently appeared in the journal Geohealth.

Thanks to the Apollo missions, scientists are familiar with the hazards of lunar regolith. Upon returning to Earth, astronauts reported eye irritation, respiratory irritation, and bronchitis, which was attributed to the dust they tracked back into their lunar landers. Today, scientists, medical professionals, and mission planners have similar concerns about Mars. Much like the Moon, Mars' surface is covered in a fine powder of silicate minerals, iron oxides, sulfates, and toxic elements like beryllium, arsenic, and perchlorates. 

However, the effects of long-term exposure to this dust are less well-understood. As Wang noted in a CU Boulder press release, the greatest concern is the size of dust particulates, which is estimated to measure 3 micrometers in diameter. "That's smaller than what the mucus in our lungs can expel," he said. "So after we inhale Martian dust, much of it could remain in our lungs and be absorbed into our bloodstream." Moreover, crewed missions to Mars will likely involve up to a year and a half of surface operations.

During this time, astronauts must deal with dust storms, which can periodically grow to encompass the entire planet. As a result, they are likely to track some of this dust back into their habitats, where it could be inhaled. As Brian Hynek, a LASP professor of geology and co-author on the paper, said in a UC Boulder press release:

"You're going to get dust on your spacesuits, and you're going to have to deal with regular dust storms. We really need to characterize this dust so that we know what the hazards are. We think there could be 10 meters of dust sitting on top of the bigger volcanoes. If you tried to land a spacecraft there, you're going to just sink into the dust."

To address this, Wang and his colleagues consulted data from Martian rovers and meteorites to gain a better understanding of what composes this regolith. Their study is the first comprehensive examination of the chemical composition of Mars regolith and its possible impacts on human health. Interestingly, their results bore some similarities to common health problems on Earth, which included a condition known as silicosis. This condition, caused by inhaling silicates, leads to the buildup of scar tissue in the lungs and respiratory difficulty.

However, the results were less clear when it came to perchlorates, though there is evidence that suggests that exposure to perchlorates can lead to severe anemia due to their effect on thyroid function. In terms of solutions, Wang and his team recommend that prevention is key, and strategies need to be developed long before astronauts are sent to Mars. These include dust filtration, cabin cleaning, and iodine supplements to increase thyroid function. Said Wang:

"This isn't the most dangerous part about going to Mars. But dust is a solvable problem, and it's worth putting in the effort to develop Mars-focused technologies for preventing these health problems in the first place. Prevention is key. We tell everyone to go see their primary care provider to check [their] cholesterol before it gives you a heart attack. The best thing we can do on Mars is make sure the astronauts aren't exposed to dust in the first place."

Further Reading: 

• UC Boulder, 
• GeoHealth

Many health problems are faced by astronauts who spend significant amounts of time in space. But perhaps one of the most insidious is the danger to their mental health. In particular, a prolonged sense of loneliness that could crop up as part of a long-term deep space mission could have dire consequences. A recent paper from Matthieu Guitton, the editor-in-chief of the journal Computers in Human Behavior: Artificial Humans and a researcher at the CERVO Brain Research Center in Quebec, proposes one potential solution to that risk - social robots.

Radiation is a commonly cited risk to human health during long-term expeditions, but the operation of a person's actual body in low gravity is also a concern. Plenty of studies have noted changes in astronauts' decision-making capabilities and tracked physiological changes in their brains. Since astronauts are some of the most highly trained people in the world, with extreme selection criteria, they generally seem able to weather that storm, but what happens when space flight becomes more ubiquitous, and people who are not as mentally well-prepared start to participate? 

Robots are already a key part of exploration activities, as Fraser discusses.

The lack of general social interaction can exacerbate those problems. In many space missions, only a few people can interact with each other. As missions get farther into space, the light lag in communication will make it more difficult to talk to anyone not in a person's immediate proximity, which limits overall social interaction, and limited social interaction itself can lead to poor mental health. So, why not simply increase the number of people to interact with but not have them take up pesky resources like food, water, and air? Can a robot truly fulfill the need for human social interaction to a point where it can reverse the isolation effects of long-term spaceflight? Dr. Guitton seems to think so.

Robots are commonly used throughout space exploration. Whether flying above the red planet or moving large installations around the ISS, robots play a central role in our modern concept of what it means to explore space. They are also becoming increasingly common on Earth, and one particular branch, that of "social robotics," is gaining increased interest due to the proliferation of seemingly human-level communication skills of some large language models.

However, most of those language models don't have a physical presence - at least not yet. That might change in the future, but Dr. Guitton thinks it is a critical feature of any robot intended to help deal with the isolation on long space missions. He points to "standard social interactions," like sitting down and talking to someone, as a key feature in the social lives of humans. Interacting with a disembodied AI, even through voice chat over a computer, doesn't have the same emotional impact.

Robots can also replace humans in a lot of dangerous settings, as Fraser discusses.

Having a physical "embodiment" begs the question—does the robot have to look human for this support structure to work? Not necessarily. In the paper, he says, "Human-like design does not necessarily mean having a fully humanoid robot. Indeed, some specific human-like features relevant for social interactions could be sufficient to induce a marked effect." 

The paper doesn't go into detail about the psychological impact of being stuck in a spaceship with a semi-humanoid robot that falls directly into the uncanny valley. But with our current level of technology, that would be the most likely outcome if we were to try to produce a physical manifestation of the type of social robot described in the paper. As robots become better at mimicking actual human features and materials improve to allow them to do so, the risk of falling into that valley decreases.

Testing the types of interactions necessary to prove the efficacy of such a robot would be difficult as well, as there are ethical questions regarding whether it's appropriate to potentially harm someone's mental health better to understand the effects of human/robot interaction. Eventually, there will be more of that interaction going on, and Dr. Guitton has been leading the charge in adapting that interaction to benefit those involved in space exploration for over a decade now. That is a concept any scientific enthusiast can get behind.

Learn More:

• Matthieu J. Guitton - Robots as social companions for space exploration
• UT - What if we’re truly alone?
• UT - MIT Claims they are Programming Humanoid Robots to help Explore Mars. But we all Know It’s Cylons!
• UT - An Astronaut Will Be Controlling Several Robots on Earth… from Space

Could microbes survive in the permanently shadowed regions (PSRs) of the Moon? This is what a recent study presented at the 56^th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference hopes to address as a team of researchers from the United States and Canada investigated the likelihood of long-term survival for microbes in the PSR areas of the Moon, which are craters located at the poles that don’t see sunlight due to the Moon’s small axial tilt. This study has the potential to help researchers better understand unlikely locations where they could find life as we know it throughout the solar system.

Here, Universe Today discusses this incredible research with Dr. John Moores, who is an associate professor in the Centre for Research in Earth and Space Science at York University and lead author of the study, regarding the motivation behind the study, significant results, how these findings could influence human exploration to the PSRs, possible contamination from human exploration, and how any microbes could have arrived at the PSRs. Therefore, what was the motivation behind the study?

“A few years ago in 2019, I participated in a study looking at the potential for the Moon to preserve microbial contamination on spacecraft, led by University of Florida researcher Dr. Andrew Schuerger,” Dr. Moores tells Universe Today. “At the time, we did not consider the PSRs because of the complexity of modelling the ultraviolet radiation environment here. However, in the years since, a former student of mine, Dr. Jacob Kloos at the University of Maryland, had developed a sophisticated illumination model. Furthermore, with the renewed interest in PSR exploration, we decided to take another look at these regions and realized we had all the pieces of the puzzle we needed to understand their ability to preserve terrestrial microbial contamination.”

For the study, the researchers conducted a series of models to ascertain if the reduced amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation and increased temperatures within the PSRs could enable the possible survival of microorganisms within two PSR craters, Shackleton and Faustini. The researchers chose these two craters based on previous studies involving the modeling of light entering the craters and both craters are also current landing site targets for the upcoming Artemis missions.

As noted, the lunar PSRs are devoid of sunlight due to the Moon’s axial tilt, which is approximately 1.5 degrees with respect to Sun. For context, the Earth’s axial tilt is approximately 23.5 degrees with respect to the Sun, resulting in the seasons we experience as Earth orbits the Sun. As a result from this small axial tilt, certain lunar PSRs crater like Shackleton and Faustini have not received sunlight in potentially billions of years. While the Moon lacks an atmosphere and is exposed to the vacuum of space, this creates very cold pockets that the researchers propose could preserve microbes for long periods of time. Therefore, what are the most significant results from this study?

“In space, microbes are typically killed by high heat and ultraviolet radiation,” Dr. Moores tells Universe Today. “However, the PSRs are very cold and very dark and, as a result, they are one of the most protective environments in the solar system for the kinds of microbes that are typically present on spacecraft. To be clear, those microbes cannot metabolize, replicate or grow here, but they likely remain viable for decades until their spores are killed by the effects of vacuum. The organic molecules that make up their cells likely would persist far longer.”

As noted, the lunar PSRs are currently targeted landing sites for the upcoming NASA Artemis program, most notably Shackleton, due to the potential pockets of water ice that are trapped within the PSR craters that future astronauts could use for water, fuel, and oxygen. However, all space missions run the risk of bringing unwanted microbes to the target location, thus potentially and unnecessarily contaminating an otherwise pristine location devoid of microbes. This could result in faulty data being collected and inaccurate results after analyzing the data, potentially leading to inaccurate findings regarding finding life beyond Earth.

This is especially true for human missions to the Moon, as humans are naturally dirty creatures that carry a myriad of microbes that could travel with them to the Moon. Thus, whatever microbes that could exist within the PSRs could become influenced by human microbes, possibly killing them off.

To combat this, the NASA Planetary Protection office is tasked with overseeing that outgoing spacecraft are sterilized and clean of microbes prior to launch but also tasked with ensuring returned spacecraft did not carry unwanted microbes from outside the Earth. Therefore, how can the findings from this study influence human exploration in lunar PSRs?

Dr. Moores tells Universe Today, “While we can clean robotic spacecraft fairly well, it is more difficult to decontaminate equipment and spacesuits used in human exploration. As a result, humans walking into the PSRs will likely carry considerably more contamination with them, some of which will be left behind and be preserved far longer than anywhere else on the moon.”

Additionally, the study notes that “care should be taken in their exploration” regarding the PSRs, but is this referring to planetary protection?

Dr. Moores tells Universe Today, “It is less a question of planetary protection than of preserving the PSRs in as close to a pristine state as possible for future scientific analyses. The question then is to what extent does this contamination matter? This will depend on the scientific work being done within the PSRs. One possible goal is to retrieve samples of water ice from within the PSRs to better understand their origins and how they came to be found here. Part of that analysis could include looking at organic molecules present in the ice that are known to occur in other places, for instance within comets. That analysis will be easier if contamination from terrestrial sources is minimized.”

If there are microbes at the lunar PSRs, the question then becomes how they arrived there. Given the heavily-craters surface of the Moon, they could have arrived from an impacting body from elsewhere in the solar system, or beyond. However, humans have also sent a number of spacecraft that have impacted the lunar surface, including the Ranger spacecraft that occurred leading up to the Apollo missions, but these spacecraft crashed near the Moon’s equator and far from the poles.

In 2009, NASA’s Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) mission to the Moon intentionally crashed its Centaur upper stage into Cabeus crater, which is a PSR crater located approximately 100 kilometers (62 miles) from the lunar south pole, with the goal of measuring the amount of water produced from the ejecta plume. But, how could microbes have arrived in lunar PSRs and what can this teach us about the Moon’s formation and evolution?

“The chance that there is already terrestrial microbial contamination in the PSRs is low but not zero,” Dr. Moores tells Universe Today. “Several spacecraft have impacted within or near the PSRs. Though they all did so at high speed, past research by others has suggested that small numbers of spores can survive simulated impacts into regolith-like materials. If any microbes survived those impacts, they would have been widely dispersed.”

What new discoveries about potential microbes living on the Moon will researchers make in the coming years and decades? Only time will tell, and this is why we science!

• As always, keep doing science & keep looking up!

What can a sample return mission from Jupiter’s volcanic moon, Io, teach scientists about planetary and satellite (moon) formation and evolution? This is what a recent study presented at the 56^th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference hopes to address as an international team of more than two dozen scientists discussed the benefits and challenges of a mission to Io with the goal of sampling its volcanic plumes that eject from its surface on a regular basis.

Here, Universe Today discusses this incredible research with Aanu Adeloye, who is a PhD Candidate in Aerospace, Aeronautical, and Astronautical Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin and lead author of the study, regarding the motivation behind the study, significant takeaways, next steps for making a sample return a reality, and the importance of returning Io samples to Earth. Therefore, what was the motivation behind the study?

“This study was sponsored by the Keck Institute for Space Studies (KISS) at the California Institute of Technology as part of a two-part workshop series titled ‘Sample Return from All across the Solar System’,” Adeloye tells Universe Today. “The primary objective was to evaluate both the scientific case for and the feasibility of returning samples from the surface, atmosphere, or plumes of diverse planetary bodies—from Mercury to Kuiper Belt Objects beyond Pluto’s orbit. Through this workshop, we developed a prioritized list of solar system targets for sample return missions over the coming decades, based on expected scientific yield and technological readiness. Io emerged as one of the key targets on this list.”

Image of Io’s nightside and dayside taken by NASA’s Juno spacecraft.

(Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI/MSSS Image processing by Emma Wälimäki © CC BY)

For the study, the researchers discussed the reasons behind choosing Io for their sample return mission, vital questions that returned samples could answer about volcanism and Io’s formation and evolution, the mission design, and the scientific impact on the planetary science community. The researchers emphasized how a sample return mission to Io could build off previous spacecraft missions to the Jovian (Jupiter) system, including Galileo, New Horizons (flyby en route to Pluto), and Juno (currently active).

Potential questions a sample return mission could address include Io’s geologic and isotopic composition, plume source and composition, geologic similarities to Europa, and Io’s interaction with Jupiter’s massive magnetic field. For mission design, the researchers propose a fast-moving spacecraft that would travel through the plumes while collecting samples, highlighting the importance of not needing to land on the surface. They estimate the total mission length from launch to return would be approximately 9.4 years based on proposed propulsion technologies. Finally, the researchers emphasized how a sample return mission could help planetary scientists gain greater insight into planetary formation and evolution, specifically Jupiter and its moons. Therefore, what were the most significant takeaways from the study?

“Io stands out as the most volcanically active body in our solar system, boasting hundreds of active volcanoes that emit plumes of gas and dust reaching heights of up to 400 km [250 miles] and spanning widths as large as 1500 km [930 miles],” Adeloye tells Universe Today. “Positioned at the boundary between the outer and inner Solar System, Io occupies a unique location that makes it an ideal target for sample return missions. Analyzing samples from Io promises to shed light on many enduring questions about the origins and evolution of the Solar System.”

NASA missions typically take years, and sometimes decades, to go from a concept to returning relevant scientific data. They are typically designated specific mission types based on budget and scope of the mission, including Discovery, New Frontiers, Solar System Exploration, and large strategic missions (formerly called Flagship). This also includes whether the mission will be a flyby, orbiter, lander, or rover. For this Io sample return mission, the researchers have designated it as a flyby since it will fly through Io’s plumes without stopping and returning to Earth with the collected samples.

Image of plumes erupting from Io’s surface taken by NASA’s Galileo spacecraft in June 1997.

(Credit: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona)

The NASA selection process for each mission typically consists of several phases involving concept, designs, testing hardware in a laboratory or ground setting, re-designs, more tests for specific systems, integrating all systems together, more tests, launch, cruise, arrival, and finally data collection. Therefore, what are the next steps for making an Io plume sample return mission a reality?

“The Io sample return study evaluated both the scientific rationale and the technological requirements needed for such a mission,” Adeloye tells Universe Today. “We concluded that, with current technology, a ‘New-Frontiers-style’ mission could feasibly perform a fly-through of one of Io’s volcanic plumes to collect gas and dust ejected from its crust. This concept is achievable using today’s propulsion and sample collection systems.”

Adeloye continues, “Furthermore, our ability to develop sophisticated simulations of Io’s plumes will greatly aid in mission planning and execution. Although further improvements in laboratory techniques are needed to optimize the analysis and yield of returned samples, we expect these challenges to be addressed over time. The next step is to assemble a team of leading scientists and engineers to develop and present detailed concept missions to the scientific community.”

As noted, Io is the most volcanically active planetary body in the solar system, boasting hundreds of volcanoes that eject magma and other materials hundreds of kilometers into space. This volcanic activity results from a phenomenon known as tidal heating, which occurs when the gravity of a much larger body tugs on a smaller body, causing it to stretch and compress during the latter’s orbit. In Io’s case, Jupiter’s intense gravity tugs on the much smaller moon as the latter orbits in an elliptical (oval-shaped) pattern, meaning Io is closer to Jupiter at some points during its orbit and farther away at other points.

Io’s volcanic activity was first discovered by Voyager 1 when it and its sister spacecraft, Voyager 2, conducted flybys of Jupiter and its moons in 1979. This was the first time that active volcanism was observed on another planetary body aside from Earth, opening new understandings into the complex and unique nature of the solar system. Therefore, what is the importance of returning Io plume samples to Earth for further analysis?

“Io occupies a unique position within both the Jovian system and the broader Solar System,” Adeloye tells Universe Today. “Its dynamic, transient atmosphere and vigorous volcanic activity continually renew its surface, effectively mitigating the space-weathering effects seen on more geologically inactive bodies. Consequently, Io's distinctive properties have preserved its surface materials in a relatively pristine state. Collecting samples from Io thus offers an unparalleled opportunity to probe early Solar System materials in a way that samples from more weathered bodies cannot.”

What will sampling Io’s volcanic plumes teach scientists about planetary formation and evolution in the coming years and decades? Only time will tell, and this is why we science!

• As always, keep doing science & keep looking up!

What kinds of scientific instruments can be used to sample the plumes of Enceladus with the goal of identifying the ingredients for life as we know it? This is what a recent study presented at the 56^th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference hopes to address as a team of international researchers investigated how the novel High Ice Flux Instrument (HIFI) could be the next-generation instrument used to sample the plumes of Enceladus while building off the groundbreaking findings from the NASA Cassini spacecraft’s Cosmic Dust Analyzer (CDA). This study has the potential to help scientists and engineers develop new and efficient methodologies for finding life on Enceladus and throughout the solar system.

Here, Universe Today discusses this incredible research with Dr. Sascha Kempf, who is an associate professor in the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder and lead author of the study, regarding the motivation behind the study, significant takeaways, making HIFI a reality, improving upon findings from NASA’s Cassini mission, and what kinds of life he hypothesizes we could find within Enceladus. Therefore, what was the motivation behind the study?

“The design of the instrument is based on the requirements for an astrobiology mission,” Dr. Kempf tells Universe Today. “We need an instrument that can identify tiny amounts of biomarkers like certain amino acids and fatty acids in the plume particle mass spectra. To do this, we need a mass resolution of about 1500 (the CDA mass resolution was 20). Also, because of the high impact rates during an Enceladus flyby, the instrument needs to have a very small, sensitive area. HIFI is meeting all these criteria.”

For context, the CDA measured more than 1000 impacts per second using a sensitive area measuring 36 cm² (5.58 in²). Therefore, the researchers are proposing a smaller sensitive area to prevent overlapping measurements. The researchers also note the low resolution of current instruments in detecting life-bearing ingredients, with examples being carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur (CHNOPS), but can also include key amino acids and organic molecules, with the hypothesized primary components being water and energy.

HIFI is a mass spectrometer, which is a well-known and widely used instrument across a myriad of scientific disciplines to identify specific molecules and particles and their masses. Samples for mass spectrometry can include solid, liquid, or gas, making it the ideal instrument for obtaining samples on space missions. Along with their myriads of Earth-based applications, mass spectrometry has been used on space missions as far back as the Viking program but has since been used on the Huygens probe that landed on Titan as part of the Cassini-Huygens mission. So, what are the most significant takeaways from this study and what are the next steps to make HIFI a reality?

“It’s amazing how we can create such a sophisticated instrument,” Dr. Kempf tells Universe Today. “My team actually built a similar instrument for NASA’s Europa Clipper mission (the Surface Dust Analyzer - SUDA). SUDA has a mass resolution of about 200, which is already pretty impressive for a flight instrument. But HIFI is about 10 times better than SUDA in terms of resolution, which is considered a major challenge for such instruments. We’re planning another round of performance tests, but this time, we’ll be testing it with ice particles. We might ask NASA to fund a flight-like prototype. In any case we’ll propose the instrument to NASA for consideration to be on the payload of a future ocean world mission.”

As noted, HIFI builds off the incredible science conducted by Cassini’s CDA instrument, which successfully identified trace amounts of organic and inorganic molecules that could have originated from hydrothermal vents at the bottom of Enceladus’ vast liquid water ocean. Hydrothermal vents are found on Earth and host several species of single-celled and multicellular organisms, including chemosynthetic bacteria, giant tube worms, deep sea mussels, crabs, shrimp, clams, along with some fish species.

One of the pinnacle discoveries that Cassini made during its years-long mission at Saturn and its many moons was the geyser-like plumes at the south pole of Enceladus, potentially discharging liquid water and other substances from its subsurface ocean. Using its CDA, Cassini flew through the plumes on multiple occasions and measured thousands of dust-sized particles. With its other instruments, including its high-resolution cameras, Cassini successfully imaged and collected data about this mysterious moon which scientists continue to pour over today. But how will HIFI’s findings improve upon Cassini’s findings regarding identifying trace amounts of organic and inorganic molecules and what kinds of life does Dr. Kempf hypothesize we could find within Enceladus?

“Only high-fidelity instruments like HIFI can accurately identify the types and amounts of these species,” Dr. Kempf tells Universe Today. “Cassini basically told us that there are quite a few organic molecules in Enceladus ice grains, but we still don’t know much about them. The subsurface ocean is a prime spot in our solar system to find clues about life. If there’s life in the ocean, we’ll likely find a wide range of amino and fatty acids. The ratio of these acids will tell us if they came from biological activities.”

How will HIFI help determine if Enceladus has the ingredients for life as we know it in the coming years and decades? Only time will tell, and this is why we science!

• As always, keep doing science & keep looking up!