The ancient stone rings that predate writing. An illustraton of the so-called Senegambian stone circles.

Curiosmos.

Archaeologists have found ancient stone circles that predate writing by thousands of years. Some track solstices. Others point to bright stars. All of them suggest a deep understanding of cycles and a need to record them in permanent form.

Why circles? The shape has no beginning or end. It reflects continuity of seasons, of time, of life and death. That universality may explain why circles appear in cultures that never met, speaking languages no longer remembered.

Nabta Playa: A stone calendar in the desert

In southern Egypt, buried beneath sand for millennia, lies Nabta Playa, a site older than Stonehenge. Built around 7,000 years ago by nomadic pastoralists, it features upright stones arranged in a circle with alignments that track the summer solstice.

Some researchers believe the stones point to Sirius and Orion’s Belt, suggesting a celestial function that goes beyond seasonal tracking. Nearby carved stones, including depictions of cows, hint at rituals tied to fertility, rain, or life cycles. Yet the people who built Nabta Playa left no written record.

They had only the stars to guide them, and stones to preserve what they saw.

Arkaim: Russia’s forgotten observatory city

I think a few of my readers have heard of this site. In the southern Ural Mountains lies Arkaim, a Bronze Age settlement with a circular layout and a mysterious past. Built roughly 4,000 years ago, its concentric walls and radial streets seem more than defensive. Researchers have noted solar and lunar alignments in its structure, leading some to describe it as an ancient observatory.

Arkaim’s origins are tied to early Indo-European migrations. Sky worship was common among these groups, and Arkaim may have served as a center for both astronomical observation and religious ceremony. Unlike Nabta Playa, it was a lived-in settlement, not just a ceremonial space. But its circular plan suggests a symbolic link to the sky above, a mirror of the heavens on Earth.

The Senegambian circles: Africa’s mysterious monuments

Scattered across Senegal and The Gambia are more than 1,000 stone circles, forming the largest concentration of megalithic structures in West Africa. Many date from the 3rd century BCE to the 9th century CE, but some may be older. Thousands of upright stones, often precisely placed, stretch across the landscape in repeating patterns.

Most were built over burials, but their scale and precision raise more questions than answers. Some researchers propose astronomical functions. Others see them as markers of territory or lineage. Almost nothing is known about the people who built them. Yet their work remains, quiet and immovable, still pointing at the sky.

What were the ancient stone circles really trying to say

We may never know exactly why these ancient stone circles were built, but when we step back and look at the patterns, a picture begins to form. Many of them are aligned with the solstices or lunar events, which suggests their builders were tracking time. This wasn’t just about counting days. It may have been a way to mark the rhythm of seasons, migrations, or sacred moments in the year.

Some of these ancient structures feel like gathering places. The way the stones are arranged, the way they open into space, hints at ceremonies or communal rituals. People may have met there to watch the sky, share stories, or honor something greater than themselves.

Then there are the details that raise even more questions. Certain sites reflect sound in strange ways. Others follow exact mathematical layouts. These elements suggest more than just tradition or instinct. They point to deliberate design, a kind of planning that reaches into science as well as spirit.

In a few places, the alignment of stones seems to echo the sky above. Stars have earthly counterparts. The layout becomes a reflection of the heavens. It’s as if these builders were creating a memory on the ground, one that would preserve what they saw in the sky.

Taken together, the  rings speak to a kind of intelligence we don’t often associate with ancient people. They understood space and time. And they used stone to hold on to that knowledge.

Circles across the world and across time

One of the most remarkable things is how often these stone circles appear in places that had no contact with each other. From the deserts of North Africa to the grasslands of Russia and the mountains of South America, circles keep appearing. Different people, different continents, but the same shape again and again.

Within these circles, familiar symbols often repeat. Bulls. Vultures (like at Göbekli Tepe). Rays of sunlight. The meanings may not have been the same, but the images speak to shared concerns. Life and death. Light and darkness. The turning of the sky.

Even now, we still rely on circles to shape our understanding of time. Our clocks are round. Our calendars turn in cycles. We still think in seasons, in repetitions, in return.

Maybe these ancient rings weren’t just tools or temples. Maybe they were a way to remember. Not just information, but feeling. Not just facts, but presence. They were made to last, and they have. Even if the language is lost, the shape remains. Even if the names are gone, the stones are still watching the sky.

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{ https://curiosmos.com/category/curious-lists/ }

10-05-2025 om 21:12 geschreven door peter  

What if the first civilizations were older than we think

What if civilization didn’t begin with cities or writing, but with memory and the sky? What if the first civilizations were older than we think?

For generations, we were taught that civilization began in Sumer and Egypt — around 3000 BCE — when humans finally settled, wrote laws, and built cities. That idea shaped everything from textbooks to popular documentaries. But over the last few decades, archaeologists have uncovered something far older. Massive stone temples, planned settlements, and mysterious ceremonial structures have emerged from beneath the soil of Turkey, Syria, and Jordan. T

hey tell a story few were expecting: that the first civilizations were older than we think, and that they didn’t begin with farming or rulers, but with ritual, alignment to the stars, and shared cultural memory.

These sites are forcing historians to rethink not only when civilization began, but what it even means to be civilized.

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The old narrative is crumbling

Civilization, we’ve been told, followed agriculture. Once people farmed, they stored grain. With storage came surplus. With surplus came hierarchies, trade, religion, and writing. But this neat progression is being disrupted by evidence that large, organized communities existed long before farming, and long before anyone thought complex societies were possible.

The first real cracks in the timeline appeared in the 1990s, when excavations at a hilltop in southeastern Turkey revealed a set of carved stone enclosures unlike anything seen before. But that was just the beginning. And as one of my favorite authors say it quite often, “things keep on getting older.”

Tell Qaramel: Towers before the plow

In northern Syria, archaeologists found something unexpected: a site called Tell Qaramel, dating back to around 10,700 BCE. That’s nearly 7,000 years before the pyramids. Here, multiple circular stone towers were constructed with carefully laid foundations and multi-level floors,  all during a time when people were still hunting and foraging.

There was no farming, no pottery, and no writing. Yet the structures show planning, cooperation, and a clear sense of permanence. They challenge the idea that architectural sophistication had to wait for agriculture. They’re one of the first signs that the first civilizations were older than we think, and organized in ways we still don’t fully understand. I do not think that people are actually aware of the number of amazing, incredible, and mind-boggling sites that exist in Iraq.

Çayönü: Ritual and order before state control

South of Tell Qaramel lies another site, Çayönü, which was occupied between 8800 and 7000 BCE. The layout was astonishingly deliberate. Rectangular homes arranged along shared paths, communal buildings with stone-paved floors, and — perhaps most disturbingly — a room filled with rows of human skulls embedded in the floor.

This wasn’t chaos. It was ritual. Scholars now believe this “skull building” served as a ceremonial site, part of a belief system passed from generation to generation. There’s no evidence of kings or taxation, yet the people of Çayönü lived with structure, meaning, and continuity. It’s one more clue that the first civilizations were older than we think, and less dependent on domination than we assumed.

Wadi Faynan: City behavior without a city

In the Jordanian desert, where survival today is a challenge even with modern tools, lies the site of Wadi Faynan — a settlement nearly 10,000 years old. It lacks walls, palaces, or temples, but it shows something else: early irrigation, cooperative labor, and multi-room housing.

There was no ruling class. No evidence of military enforcement. Yet people worked together to manage water, food, and construction. This type of social coordination has long been associated with formal city-states — but Wadi Faynan had none. It’s a quiet but powerful example that the first civilizations were older than we think, and may have valued function over formality.

Nevalı Çori: The first temples?

Before Göbekli Tepe stunned the world, a nearby site called Nevalı Çori hinted at a forgotten chapter in human history. Dated to around 8500 BCE, this small village held something remarkable: carved pillars, humanoid statues, and a structure that appears to have been a ritual hall or temple.

All of this happened before the widespread use of farming, metal, or permanent cities. The stonework was advanced. The figures were symbolic. The layout suggested planning. It was not just shelter — it was a sacred space.

Nevalı Çori is one of several sites now revealing that the first civilizations were older than we think, and driven as much by shared meaning as by material need.

What were these people building — and why?

Ok, but let’s step back for a minute and ask an important question. Why? If not for survival, then what drove people to carve massive stones, align temples to the solstice, and plan settlements with symmetry? These were not random experiments. They reflect something deeper: the need to remember, to pass down knowledge, to make sense of death, stars, and time itself.

In place after place, from Göbekli Tepe to Karahan Tepe, we find symbolism without writing, cooperation without kings, and architecture without agriculture. These early builders were not primitive. They were highly intelligent, spiritually driven, and deeply aware of their place in the world.

If you ask me, the evidence is mounting: and we have to start rewriting our history books and acknowledge that the first civilizations were older than we think, and rooted not in wealth or war, but in meaning.

Rethinking the definition of civilization

But it is also time for one more thing. We need to redefine the word for “civilization”. For too long, civilization has been defined by what leaves behind the most impressive ruins, pyramids, palaces, writing systems. But this definition overlooks something crucial: intention.

What if a circle of carved pillars in Turkey carries more civilizational meaning than a walled city? What if skulls arranged in a sacred floor say more about culture than a stone tablet of taxes? What if the first civilizations were older than we think, simply because they were never about power, but about… say… memory?

We are not discovering “primitive ancestors.” We are uncovering the deep roots of cultural intelligence.

A future built on forgotten pasts

Every new find and every carved totem, buried tower, and stone map of the stars adds to a growing truth: the beginning of civilization didn’t start with kings. It started with questions. Who are we? Where do we go when we die? What moves in the sky above?

The answers were written not in ink, but in stone, passed silently from hand to hand for thousands of years. And they remind us that the first civilizations were older than we think, and perhaps wiser, too.

So guess it is time to finally acknowledge that the story of human civilization doesn’t begin in 3000 BCE. It begins in silence, in ritual, in stones aligned with the stars. Long before cities and scribes, people were building structures that spoke to the soul, not the state. If we want to understand where we come from, we must look beyond kings and kingdoms. The first civilizations weren’t lost. They were simply buried — waiting for us to listen. Waiting for us to discover.

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{ https://curiosmos.com/category/ancient-civilizations/ }

08-05-2025 om 00:45 geschreven door peter  

An interest in understanding the role that the Milky Way played in Egyptian culture and religion has led University of Portsmouth Associate Professor of Astrophysics Dr. Or Graur to uncover what he thinks may be the ancient Egyptian visual depiction of our galaxy.

Various Egyptian gods are either associated with, symbolize, or directly embody certain celestial objects. In his study, Dr. Graur reviewed 125 images of the sky-goddess Nut (pronounced "Noot"), found among 555 ancient Egyptian coffins dating back nearly 5,000 years.

Combining astronomy with Egyptology, he analyzed whether she could be linked to the Milky Way and his findings are now published in the  Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage.

• The Great Pyramid: New Theory on God Symbolism and the Hidden Chambers
• Sky Religion in Ancient Egypt: Temples and Magick - Part I

The Many and Myriad Portrayals of Nut

In scenes reflecting the day and night sky, Nut is shown as a naked, arched woman, sometimes covered with stars or with solar disks. Nut's arched posture is seen as evoking her identification with the sky and its protection of Earth below.

As the goddess of the sky, Nut is often depicted as a star-studded woman arched over her brother, the earth god Geb. She protects the earth from being flooded by the encroaching waters of the void and plays a key role in the solar cycle, swallowing the sun as it sets at dusk and giving birth to it once more as it rises at dawn.

However, on the outer coffin of Nesitaudjatakhet, a chantress of Amun-Re who lived some 3,000 years ago, Nut's appearance deviates from the norm. Here, a distinctive, undulating black curve crosses her body from the soles of her feet to the tips of her fingers, with stars painted in roughly equal numbers above and below the curve.

The Milky Way over the sand dunes of the Egyptian Western Desert near El-Fayoum. Note the similarity between the Great Rift and the undulating black curve that bisects Nut’s body. 

(Osama Faithi/Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage).

Dr. Graur said, "I think that the undulating curve represents the Milky Way and could be a representation of the Great Rift—the dark band of dust that cuts through the Milky Way's bright band of diffused light. Comparing this depiction with a photograph of the Milky Way shows the stark similarity."

He added, "Similar undulating curves appear in four tombs in the Valley of the Kings. In the tomb of Ramesses VI, for example, the ceiling of the burial chamber is split between the Book of the Day and the Book of the Night. Both include arched figures of Nut displayed back-to-back and separated by thick, golden undulating curves that issue from the base of Nut's head and travel above her back all the way to her rear."

"I did not see a similar undulating curve in any of the other cosmological representations of Nut and it is my view that the rarity of this curve reinforces the conclusion I reached in a study of ancient texts last year, which is that although there is a connection between Nut and the Milky Way, the two are not one and the same. Nut is not a representation of the Milky Way. Instead, the Milky Way, along with the sun and the stars, is one more celestial phenomenon that can decorate Nut's body in her role as the sky."

• Understanding the Gods of Egypt: In Unison With Nature
• Beyond Fertility: Goddess Heqet’s Extensive Influence on Ancient Egypt

The Milky Way in the Spotlight

In a study published last year (April 2024), Dr. Graur drew from a rich collection of ancient sources, including the Pyramid Texts, Coffin Texts, and the Book of Nut, to compare them alongside sophisticated simulations of the Egyptian night sky and argue that the Milky Way might have shone a spotlight on Nut's role as the sky in Egyptian mythology.

It proposed that in winter, the Milky Way highlighted Nut's outstretched arms, while in summer, it traced her backbone across the heavens. Dr. Graur's conclusions about Nut and the Milky Way have evolved since that initial paper. He said, "The texts, on their own, suggested one way to think about the link between Nut and the Milky Way. Analyzing her visual depictions on coffins and tomb murals added a new dimension that, quite literally, painted a different picture."

The astronomical ceiling from the tomb of Seti I (KV 17). Note the undulating black curves between rows of yellow half-circles that border the two halves of the ceiling. 

(Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage).

Both the current and previous studies are part of a larger project by Dr. Graur to catalog and study the multi-cultural mythology of the Milky Way. He said, "I chanced upon the sky-goddess Nut when I was writing a book on galaxies and looking into the mythology of the Milky Way. My interest was piqued after a visit to a museum with my daughters, where they were enchanted by the image of an arched woman and kept asking to hear stories about her."

There is no doubt that the relationship between ancient Egyptian mythology and the sky is deep and complex. Even now, thousands of years after that civilization was at the peak of its power and influence, there is still more to be discovered about the nature of that relationship, as Dr Graur’s work so clearly demonstrates.

• Top image: Nut’s cosmological vignette on the outer coffin of Nesitaudjatakhet. Nut’s body is covered in stars as well as a thick, undulating black curve that runs from the soles of her feet to the tips of her fingers. This curve, surrounded by stars on both sides, is reminiscent of the Milky Way’s Great Rift.
• Source: Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage.
• This is an edited version of a press release from the University of Portsmouth, entitled ‘Depictions of the Milky Way Found in Ancient Egyptian Imagery.

• https://youtu.be/wAF3-1fLn_0

{ https://www.ancient-origins.net/unexplained-phenomena }

03-05-2025 om 22:30 geschreven door peter  

16 Famous Historical Sites That Have Been Lost to Natural Disasters

Alvin Goodley 

Throughout history, natural disasters have wiped out cities, monuments, and entire civilizations. Some of the world’s most famous landmarks have been lost due to catastrophic events like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and floods. These once-thriving places now exist only in ruins or stories. Here, we explore a collection of historical sites that nature took away, some well-known and others long forgotten.

1. Pompeii, Italy

Pompeii was a prosperous Roman city located near modern Naples. In 79 AD, Mount Vesuvius erupted, releasing clouds of ash, pumice, and toxic gases. The city was buried under meters of volcanic debris, instantly killing thousands of its residents. Remarkably, Pompeii remained frozen in time for centuries, preserving homes, streets, and even the positions of people caught in the disaster. Today, it provides one of the clearest insights into life in ancient Rome. The eruption also destroyed nearby Herculaneum, another significant Roman settlement.

2. Port Royal, Jamaica

Port Royal was a thriving Caribbean port and notorious pirate haven in the 17th century. On June 7, 1692, a massive earthquake struck, causing two-thirds of the city to sink into the sea. The earthquake was followed by a deadly tsunami, which drowned many survivors and left the port in ruins. Once one of the wealthiest cities in the New World, Port Royal’s destruction became a cautionary tale about decadence and immorality. Today, its submerged remains are a popular site for underwater archaeologists exploring its sunken treasures.

3. Alexandria Lighthouse, Egypt

The Lighthouse of Alexandria, also known as the Pharos of Alexandria, was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Built in the 3rd century BC, it stood over 100 meters tall and guided ships safely to the busy port of Alexandria. Several earthquakes between the 10th and 14th centuries weakened the structure until it eventually collapsed into the Mediterranean Sea. Though long gone, the lighthouse’s foundations were discovered underwater, and it continues to inspire modern designs of lighthouses around the world.

4. Helike, Greece

Helike was a wealthy Greek city located near the Corinthian Gulf. In 373 BC, a powerful earthquake struck, followed by a massive tsunami that submerged the entire city. Helike disappeared beneath the waters, and for centuries, its existence was thought to be a legend. In the 20th century, archaeologists discovered its ruins under layers of silt and water. The sudden destruction of Helike may have contributed to the stories of Atlantis, as the city’s fate seemed so sudden and mysterious.

5. Nan Madol, Micronesia

Nan Madol is an ancient city built on artificial islets off the coast of Pohnpei in Micronesia. Once a political and ceremonial hub for the Saudeleur Dynasty, it was constructed with massive stone walls and canals. Over time, the region was hit by severe tsunamis and typhoons that eroded parts of the city, leading to its abandonment. The remote location and challenging conditions have preserved much of the city, but it remains threatened by ongoing natural forces. Nan Madol’s ruins are an impressive testament to early island engineering.

6. Atlantis

The legend of Atlantis, first described by the philosopher Plato, tells of a mighty civilization that vanished beneath the sea in a single day and night. Many believe it was destroyed by an earthquake or tsunami, though its exact location remains a mystery. While no conclusive evidence has been found, some speculate that Atlantis may have been inspired by real ancient cities like Helike or Santorini. Whether real or myth, the story of Atlantis continues to captivate and inspire explorations for the lost civilization.

7. Old St. Augustine, Florida, USA

Founded by the Spanish in 1565, St. Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied European city in the United States. However, much of its early settlement was destroyed by hurricanes in the 17th and 18th centuries. These storms caused massive flooding, damaged buildings, and washed away parts of the original city. Old St. Augustine’s historic landmarks were repeatedly rebuilt after each storm, but the original structures were largely lost to time and nature’s wrath. Today, the city is a testament to resilience, though remnants of the old city still remain buried beneath layers of history.

8. Roman City of Baiae, Italy

Baiae was a lavish resort town for the Roman elite, famous for its thermal baths and opulent villas. Located on the Bay of Naples, the city was built on a geologically active area. Volcanic activity and a phenomenon called bradyseism, where land slowly rises and falls, caused Baiae to sink beneath the waters of the Mediterranean. By the 8th century, the city was completely submerged. Today, divers can explore the well-preserved ruins of villas, mosaics, and statues that once belonged to some of the most powerful Romans.

9. Akrotiri, Greece

Akrotiri was a bustling Minoan city on the island of Santorini, flourishing in the Bronze Age. Around 1600 BC, a massive volcanic eruption buried the entire settlement under ash, preserving it much like Pompeii. The eruption was one of the largest in human history and likely caused significant climatic and seismic changes in the region. Excavations of Akrotiri have revealed well-preserved frescoes, pottery, and buildings, offering a unique insight into Minoan life. Unlike Pompeii, no human remains have been found, suggesting that the residents evacuated before the disaster struck.

10. La Ciudad Perdida, Colombia

La Ciudad Perdida, or the “Lost City,” is an ancient Tairona settlement hidden deep in the Sierra Nevada mountains of Colombia. It was built around 800 AD and served as a major cultural and trade center. The city was abandoned after severe flooding, which contributed to its decline, along with disease and conflict. Thick jungle growth overtook the city, hiding it for centuries until its rediscovery in the 1970s. Today, its terraced platforms, stone paths, and plazas are some of the few remnants of this lost civilization.

11. Dwarka, Indi

Dwarka, mentioned in Hindu scriptures as the kingdom of Lord Krishna, is believed to have been a thriving port city. Archaeological evidence suggests that it existed around 3000 BC but was submerged due to rising sea levels. Underwater excavations near the modern city of Dwarka have revealed remnants of walls, structures, and stone anchors, indicating a once prosperous maritime center. While much of Dwarka remains a mystery, its legend continues to captivate both archaeologists and historians, who are still uncovering clues about its lost glory.

12. Yaxuná, Mexico

Yaxuná was a prominent Mayan city located in the Yucatán Peninsula, with its history dating back to 500 BC. The city thrived for centuries but was severely impacted by repeated hurricanes and flooding, leading to its eventual abandonment. These natural disasters caused widespread damage to its infrastructure and agricultural systems, weakening its economy and political power. Today, the ruins of Yaxuná, including pyramids and ceremonial structures, remain covered by jungle growth, though some areas have been excavated and preserved.

13. Sunken City of Pavlopetri, Greece

Pavlopetri, located off the coast of Laconia, Greece, is considered one of the oldest known submerged cities, dating back to around 3000 BC. It was a thriving coastal settlement, but repeated earthquakes and subsidence caused the land to sink, eventually submerging the city beneath the sea. Archaeologists have discovered well-preserved streets, buildings, and tombs underwater, offering a unique glimpse into the life of an ancient Greek city. Pavlopetri’s underwater ruins continue to fascinate both scholars and divers today.

14. Old Panama City, Panama

Founded in 1519, Old Panama City was a vital Spanish colonial outpost and the first European settlement on the Pacific coast of the Americas. In 1671, the city was attacked by pirates, leading to widespread fires that devastated much of its infrastructure. The final blow came in the form of an earthquake, which further destroyed what was left of the city. The Spanish authorities decided to relocate and rebuild Panama City at a new site, leaving the old ruins as a haunting reminder of its turbulent past.

15. Phanom Rung, Thailand

Phanom Rung is a Khmer temple complex in northeastern Thailand, built between the 10th and 13th centuries. The site was constructed on the rim of an extinct volcano, and over the years, it suffered from severe flooding and erosion. These natural forces damaged many of its structures, and the site was eventually abandoned. Though partially restored, the temple complex still bears the scars of centuries of neglect and exposure to the elements. Phanom Rung remains an important cultural and historical site, drawing visitors from around the world.

16. Villa Epecuén, Argentina

Villa Epecuén was a popular tourist resort town in Argentina, located along the shores of Lago Epecuén. In 1985, heavy rains caused the lake’s water levels to rise dramatically, flooding the town completely. For over 25 years, the city remained submerged under nearly 10 meters of water. Eventually, the waters receded, revealing the ghostly ruins of the once-thriving resort. Today, Villa Epecuén stands as a stark reminder of nature’s power, with its crumbling structures drawing curious visitors and photographers.

• This article originally appeared on Rarest.org

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{ https://rarest.org/ }

03-05-2025 om 21:40 geschreven door peter  

Lost cities buried beneath volcanic rock. Hre we have the remnants of Akrotiri.

Akrotiri: The Bronze Age city hidden beneath Santorini’s ash

Before Athens left its mark on the ancient world, another city stood quietly on the island of Thera. Known today as Akrotiri, it was a Minoan settlement with well-planned streets, multi-story buildings, running water, and walls covered in vivid frescoes. The paintings showed ships at sea, blooming plants, and people at festivals — scenes that suggest a society with comfort, order, and culture.

Then the volcano erupted. Around 1600 BCE, Thera collapsed in on itself. Ash and debris buried the entire city.

When archaeologists began excavating Akrotiri in the 20th century, they found something rare. The streets were still intact. Pottery stood where it had been left. Color remained on the walls. It looked as if the people had only just stepped outside.

No human remains were found, which suggests that residents may have fled before the eruption. But the silence left behind feels complete. Over time, the site sparked speculation that it might have influenced the story of Atlantis, a powerful city lost to disaster and time.

Even without the myth, Akrotiri stands as one of the clearest windows into Bronze Age life in the Aegean. It isn’t just preserved. It’s alive with detail.

Pompeii: Where Roman life was frozen at the moment of death

It started with a column of smoke rising over Mount Vesuvius. People watched it from the streets, not knowing what was coming. By nightfall, ash covered everything. In Pompeii, life was still moving, meals being prepared, families resting, and children playing in courtyards.

Some were sitting down to eat. Others were lying down to sleep. A few tried to run. The ash came quickly. It buried the city exactly as it had been.

Seventeen centuries passed before Pompeii was seen again. When archaeologists began to dig, they didn’t just find ruins. They found a city that felt intact. Loaves of bread still sat in ovens. Graffiti still covered the walls. Shops, homes, and narrow alleys stood in place.

Even the people remained. You could see the folds in their clothing. In some cases, you could still see the looks on their faces.

Pompeii isn’t just a ruin. It’s a full snapshot of Roman life, caught in its final hours. This wasn’t the Rome of emperors or marble temples. It was a city of bakers, shopkeepers, children, workers. And every corner of it tells a story too ordinary — and too real — for a textbook to capture.

Ceren: A buried village that preserved the voices of everyday people

Most ancient sites focus on rulers, monuments, and warfare. Ceren tells a quieter story.

In what is now El Salvador, this small farming village was once part of a Maya-related culture. Around the year 600, a nearby volcano erupted without warning. Ash covered the village so quickly that it preserved almost everything exactly as it had been.

Archaeologists didn’t uncover palaces or royal tombs. They found homes, storage huts, planted fields, and tools left where they had last been used. Sleeping mats were still laid out. Food was still inside the cooking pots.

No human remains were found, which suggests the villagers had time to leave. What they left behind offers a rare and detailed view of everyday life.

Ceren was not a place of kings. It was a working community. The site shows how people cooked, stored food, built their homes, and farmed the land. It remains one of the few places in the Americas where the lives of ordinary people were preserved so completely.

Why volcanic eruptions can preserve what centuries usually destroy

Volcanic eruptions happen fast. Ash falls, roofs collapse, the sky turns dark, and towns disappear in a matter of hours. What starts as destruction can sometimes leave behind something else entirely.

When the ash settles quickly and thickly enough, it acts like a seal. It locks out air and moisture, which are the main forces behind decay. That’s why things like wood, food, fabric, plants, and even footprints can survive for thousands of years.

This is what makes cities buried by volcanic eruptions so different from most archaeological sites. In most places, time works slowly, wearing everything down. Walls collapse. Objects break apart or go missing. Organic materials rot away.

But in places like Pompeii or Akrotiri, everything stays where it was. Walls still stand. Food is still in the oven. Tools are still beside the people who used them. These are not just ruins. They are preserved spaces. Rooms, streets, and homes. They show us what life looked like on the day everything stopped.

They don’t just tell us what people built. They show us what people were doing.

What these buried cities still reveal about us

The lost cities buried beneath volcanic rock were not just preserved. They were paused.

The people who lived in them had no idea their final moments would be sealed in ash and rediscovered centuries later. But here they are, almost untouched, in ways that history rarely allows.

We don’t just find buildings or tools. We find meals left half-finished. Sleeping mats still in place. Homes arranged with care. We see what people took with them, and what they left behind. These are details we almost never get to see, and they make the past feel immediate.

But these discoveries also raise difficult questions. What does it mean to dig up the past when it includes real human lives? Should the remains of those who died be put on display? Who gets to decide how their stories are told?

Everything we build fades eventually. Cities fall. Habits change. Memory slips away. Unless something holds it in place. Civilizations come and go. History is clear about that.

These cities became more than anyone ever intended. They were sealed, protected, and passed on. Not through writing or monuments, but through layers of ash and centuries of silence. And in that silence, they still speak.

{ https://curiosmos.com/category/ancient-civilizations/ }

03-05-2025 om 20:54 geschreven door peter  

El Cono: The mysterious sacred 'pyramid' hidden deep in the Amazon rainforest

{ https://www.livescience.com/archaeology }

03-05-2025 om 00:00 geschreven door peter  

An illustration of an ancient cataclysm.

These are not tales of heavy rain or local disasters. They describe oceans rising over mountains, entire lands disappearing, and only a handful of survivors rebuilding what was lost.

Many traditions also speak of fire from the sky. Norse mythology ends in flames. Zoroastrian teachings include a world-cleansing fire. The Aztecs believed one of their previous suns ended in flames. Some Aboriginal Australian stories describe stars falling and setting the land alight.

Darkness is another common thread. Egyptian texts mention days without sunlight. Hindu scriptures speak of an age of darkness, Kali Yuga. The Bible refers to the sun being darkened. In Mesoamerican myth, some world ages ended in a darkened sky and the absence of light.

These themes—water, fire, and darkness—are found across ancient myth, separated by geography and language. The repetition suggests more than coincidence. It hints at cultural memory of a forgotten cycle of global cataclysms.

Not linear, but cyclical time

Ancient civilizations did not always see time the way modern cultures do. Today we think in terms of progress and linear development. But in many ancient traditions, time moves in great cycles, each ending in destruction before renewal.

In Hindu cosmology, the Yuga cycle describes four ages. Each age sees a decline in morality and order, ending with devastation before the return of the golden age. According to some interpretations, we are nearing the end of Kali Yuga, the darkest phase.

The Aztecs described five previous suns, each representing a world age. Four have ended in catastrophe. The fifth, our current age, is believed to end with earthquakes.

Plato described a lost civilization—Atlantis—that fell in a single night of floods and earthquakes. He claimed this was not unique but part of recurring global resets known to Egyptian priests. He spoke of time as containing repeated “cataclysms” that wiped clean the memory of humanity.

These ideas all reflect an awareness of a forgotten cycle of global cataclysms. Civilizations were seen not as permanent, but as vulnerable to periodic collapse.

Earth’s long rhythms and forgotten science

Some researchers believe these myths preserve real events—possibly triggered by natural cycles we’ve only recently begun to understand.

One of these is Earth’s axial precession, a 26,000-year wobble that shifts the position of stars in the sky over time. Some ancient sites, like the Sphinx and Stonehenge, appear to align with stars in ways that match not the present sky, but the sky of ancient epochs. This has led to speculation that ancient cultures were tracking time on cosmic scales.

Another candidate is cosmic impact. The Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis suggests that around 12,800 years ago, a fragmented comet struck Earth, causing sudden cooling, mass extinctions, and enormous fires across North America. This timing aligns closely with many flood myths and with the end of advanced prehistoric cultures like the Clovis.

Even solar activity might play a role. Some traditions describe the sun behaving strangely—growing dark, changing color, or acting violently. These could be ancient observations of solar flares, magnetic disruptions, or atmospheric changes following comet impacts.

While mainstream science debates these theories, the ancient stories do not shy away from describing worldwide destruction. The key question is whether they are describing fiction—or a pattern we have forgotten.

Myth as encoded memory

Writers like Graham Hancock, Randall Carlson, and others have popularized the idea that myths are not superstition, but information preserved through symbolism and story. They argue that ancient structures, oral traditions, and ritual  calendars were part of a global system meant to remember past cataclysms. One example according to some authors is Göbekli Tepe.

Many ancient monuments are aligned with stars, solstices, or equinoxes. Some appear to be maps of the sky or calendars tracking long cycles. Petroglyphs and sacred texts often describe disasters in symbolic terms—dragons, floods, heavenly fire—that may represent real events experienced by ancient people.

While these theories are controversial, they force us to ask difficult questions. Why do myths around the world describe similar events? Why do so many refer to a world before the current one? And why were ancient people so focused on preserving this knowledge?

Perhaps they were trying to pass on more than culture. Perhaps they were trying to warn us.

A message for the present age

Modern life feels stable—until it doesn’t. Earthquakes, volcanoes, solar flares, asteroid near-misses, and rapid climate shifts all remind us how fragile civilization really is.

The ancient world may have known this better than we do. Their stories speak not only of disaster but of recovery. The survivors of the last cycle built again. They told their children. They carved the warnings into stone.

Maybe myths are more than imagination. Maybe they are fragments of a survival manual.

The forgotten cycle of global cataclysms might not be a relic of the past. It might be a reality we are part of, one we no longer see because we stopped looking. The ancient world remembered. The question is whether we are still capable of doing the same.

RELATED VIDEOS

{ https://curiosmos.com/category/ancient-civilizations/ }

02-05-2025 om 23:38 geschreven door peter  

An illustration of an ancient cataclysm.

These are not tales of heavy rain or local disasters. They describe oceans rising over mountains, entire lands disappearing, and only a handful of survivors rebuilding what was lost.

Many traditions also speak of fire from the sky. Norse mythology ends in flames. Zoroastrian teachings include a world-cleansing fire. The Aztecs believed one of their previous suns ended in flames. Some Aboriginal Australian stories describe stars falling and setting the land alight.

Darkness is another common thread. Egyptian texts mention days without sunlight. Hindu scriptures speak of an age of darkness, Kali Yuga. The Bible refers to the sun being darkened. In Mesoamerican myth, some world ages ended in a darkened sky and the absence of light.

These themes—water, fire, and darkness—are found across ancient myth, separated by geography and language. The repetition suggests more than coincidence. It hints at cultural memory of a forgotten cycle of global cataclysms.

Not linear, but cyclical time

Ancient civilizations did not always see time the way modern cultures do. Today we think in terms of progress and linear development. But in many ancient traditions, time moves in great cycles, each ending in destruction before renewal.

In Hindu cosmology, the Yuga cycle describes four ages. Each age sees a decline in morality and order, ending with devastation before the return of the golden age. According to some interpretations, we are nearing the end of Kali Yuga, the darkest phase.

The Aztecs described five previous suns, each representing a world age. Four have ended in catastrophe. The fifth, our current age, is believed to end with earthquakes.

Plato described a lost civilization—Atlantis—that fell in a single night of floods and earthquakes. He claimed this was not unique but part of recurring global resets known to Egyptian priests. He spoke of time as containing repeated “cataclysms” that wiped clean the memory of humanity.

These ideas all reflect an awareness of a forgotten cycle of global cataclysms. Civilizations were seen not as permanent, but as vulnerable to periodic collapse.

Earth’s long rhythms and forgotten science

Some researchers believe these myths preserve real events—possibly triggered by natural cycles we’ve only recently begun to understand.

One of these is Earth’s axial precession, a 26,000-year wobble that shifts the position of stars in the sky over time. Some ancient sites, like the Sphinx and Stonehenge, appear to align with stars in ways that match not the present sky, but the sky of ancient epochs. This has led to speculation that ancient cultures were tracking time on cosmic scales.

Another candidate is cosmic impact. The Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis suggests that around 12,800 years ago, a fragmented comet struck Earth, causing sudden cooling, mass extinctions, and enormous fires across North America. This timing aligns closely with many flood myths and with the end of advanced prehistoric cultures like the Clovis.

Even solar activity might play a role. Some traditions describe the sun behaving strangely—growing dark, changing color, or acting violently. These could be ancient observations of solar flares, magnetic disruptions, or atmospheric changes following comet impacts.

While mainstream science debates these theories, the ancient stories do not shy away from describing worldwide destruction. The key question is whether they are describing fiction—or a pattern we have forgotten.

Myth as encoded memory

Writers like Graham Hancock, Randall Carlson, and others have popularized the idea that myths are not superstition, but information preserved through symbolism and story. They argue that ancient structures, oral traditions, and ritual  calendars were part of a global system meant to remember past cataclysms. One example according to some authors is Göbekli Tepe.

Many ancient monuments are aligned with stars, solstices, or equinoxes. Some appear to be maps of the sky or calendars tracking long cycles. Petroglyphs and sacred texts often describe disasters in symbolic terms—dragons, floods, heavenly fire—that may represent real events experienced by ancient people.

While these theories are controversial, they force us to ask difficult questions. Why do myths around the world describe similar events? Why do so many refer to a world before the current one? And why were ancient people so focused on preserving this knowledge?

Perhaps they were trying to pass on more than culture. Perhaps they were trying to warn us.

A message for the present age

Modern life feels stable—until it doesn’t. Earthquakes, volcanoes, solar flares, asteroid near-misses, and rapid climate shifts all remind us how fragile civilization really is.

The ancient world may have known this better than we do. Their stories speak not only of disaster but of recovery. The survivors of the last cycle built again. They told their children. They carved the warnings into stone.

Maybe myths are more than imagination. Maybe they are fragments of a survival manual.

The forgotten cycle of global cataclysms might not be a relic of the past. It might be a reality we are part of, one we no longer see because we stopped looking. The ancient world remembered. The question is whether we are still capable of doing the same.

{ https://curiosmos.com/category/ancient-civilizations/ }

02-05-2025 om 22:34 geschreven door peter  

An image of the ancient Citadel of Aleppo.

Beneath the streets of Aleppo, under the hills of Turkey, and across the plains of Mesopotamia lie the bones of cities long gone. Not buried by nature always, sometimes by choice. Sometimes layered on purpose. These are places where people didn’t just return to rebuild after collapse — they stayed put and built again, directly on top of the past.

The phenomenon of ancient cities built on top of each other is not a quirk of history. It is one of the most consistent and revealing patterns in the archaeology of early civilization. At sites like Çatalhöyük, Tell Brak, and Jericho, we find stacked layers of mudbrick, ash, and stone that represent thousands of years of unbroken occupation. When I look back at these, I kind of feel that every layer tells a story. And it is not just one of progress, but one of survival, one of adaptation, and the human instinct to stay grounded in place.

But before I go any further, I would like to take a moment to explain the words “tell,” “tepe,” and “tappeh”.

What do “tell,” “tepe,” and “tappeh” mean?

If you’ve ever come across names like Tell Brak, Göbekli Tepe, or Tappeh Sialk, you might have wondered what those words mean. So, they’re not just names. They’re clues about the history hidden beneath the surface.

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In archaeology, a “tell” is an artificial mound formed by layers of human settlement built up over time. The word tell comes from Arabic and means “hill.” These mounds form when people live in the same place for hundreds or even thousands of years. Each time a building collapses or burns down, the debris stays behind. New buildings go up right on top. Over time, the site rises higher and higher, creating a mound filled with history.

In Turkish, the same kind of mound is called a “tepe,” which also means “hill.” That’s why we see names like Göbekli Tepe in modern-day Turkey. The name literally translates to “Potbelly Hill.”

In Persian (Farsi), the word is “tappeh.” In Iran, many ancient sites use this term, like Tappeh Sialk or Tappeh Hesar. Just like tells and tepes, these are mounds formed from ancient cities that were built, destroyed, and rebuilt over and over again.

So while the words are different, they all point to the same idea. Whether it’s a tell, tepe, or tappeh, it means you’re looking at a place where people stayed for a long time, rebuilding their homes on the same ground again and again. And underneath each one lies layer after layer of forgotten history.

Why did people rebuild in the same place?

I will try and explain this the best way I can so it makese sense.

But before we start I would like to clear somehing: rebuilding on top of older ruins wasn’t just about tradition. It made practical sense for a lot of reasons, and those reasons were often tied to survival.

First, there was the need for water. Fresh sources like rivers, springs, and wells didn’t move. If a site had good access to water, people would come back to it again and again. In dry regions, staying close to reliable water could mean the difference between life and death.

Then there was the value of fertile land. Soil that could support crops wasn’t available everywhere. Once people learned how to work the land in a specific place, it made sense to stay there. Moving away could mean losing hard-earned knowledge about how to survive in that environment.

• Geography also played a role. Many early cities were built on hills or near mountain passes, where they had a better view of the surrounding area and could defend themselves more easily. Others were near trade routes, allowing them to control movement and commerce. Giving up those positions would have been a big loss.
• Materials mattered too. Building supplies like stone, timber, and mudbrick were valuable and not always easy to find. After a disaster — whether from war, fire, or time — people often reused whatever they could. Rebuilding on the same ground saved effort and made use of what was already there.

Finally, there was a deep sense of connection to place. People returned to where they had grown up, where their ancestors were buried, where stories had been passed down. These locations held emotional weight. Staying put wasn’t just practical. It helped people hold on to who they were.

Çatalhöyük: Where life and memory were stacked in mudbrick

Without a doubt, one of my favorites.

In the heart of what is now central Turkey lies one of the earliest known cities in human history — Çatalhöyük. First settled around 7500 BCE, this Neolithic site grew into a dense community of thousands. What makes it so fascinating isn’t just its age, but how it was built and rebuilt over time.

People at Çatalhöyük lived in tightly packed mudbrick houses. Instead of streets, they walked along rooftops, entering their homes through holes in the ceiling using ladders. When a house was abandoned or collapsed, a new one was constructed directly on top of the old foundation. Over the span of about 1,200 years, this cycle created 18 layers of construction, stacked one above the other.

The layers weren’t just architectural. They were deeply personal. Families buried their dead beneath the floors of their homes. That meant every new house was also resting on the memory of those who had lived there before. Çatalhöyük was more than a city. I feel it was a place where memory, ancestry, and everyday life were physically tied together. Layer across layer.

Tell Brak: A city that grew from a sacred center

Over in northeastern Syria stands Tell Brak, another key to understanding the layered nature of ancient cities. It began as a small settlement around 6000 BCE, but over time, it developed into one of the first large urban centers in the world.

Its early structures were likely ceremonial — shrines and sacred enclosures that marked the site as spiritually important. As the population grew, homes, administrative buildings, and roads began to form around these sacred spaces. And like at Çatalhöyük, the site was rebuilt again and again as each generation adapted to new conditions.

Some of Tell Brak’s layers are thin, representing short-term activity. Others are deeper, the result of longer, more stable phases of occupation. What holds it all together is continuity. Despite changes in leadership, culture, and environment, people kept coming back. They didn’t abandon the place when things got hard. They built over it and moved forward.

Tepe Gawra: Sacred patterns that never faded

North of Mosul in modern-day Iraq lies Tepe Gawra, a site known not just for its long history, but for how that history was shaped by religious life.

Tepe Gawra was occupied from about 5000 BCE and contains 16 layers of construction. As temples fell out of use, new ones were often built on top of them. In some cases, the exact layout was preserved, even as decorative elements or materials changed. This suggests more than just practicality. It points to a deep respect for sacred space.

Generations of people reused the same ground to worship, plan, and gather. The buildings changed, but the meaning behind them did not. Tepe Gawra shows how spiritual identity was literally rooted in place.

Jericho: A city layered with 11,000 years of survival

Few places on Earth have been occupied as long as Jericho. Located near the Jordan River, it is one of the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world. Excavations at Tell es-Sultan, the ancient core of Jericho, reveal more than 20 layers of human settlement dating back to around 9000 BCE.

One of the most striking finds is a massive stone tower and wall system that dates to the Neolithic era, long before similar structures appeared elsewhere. As each civilization passed through, it built on top of what came before. Homes, fortifications, and tools from different ages now lie stacked in the soil, preserved in a vertical record of resilience.

Jericho isn’t just a story about one people or one culture. It’s a case study in continuity. Despite conquest, natural disaster, and political change, the city remained. The location mattered more than the name or ruler of the day.

Aleppo and Damascus: Where history still breathes beneath the surface

Some ancient cities are still very much alive. Aleppo and Damascus, both located in Syria, are among the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities. Unlike Çatalhöyük or Tell Brak, these are not archaeological sites frozen in time. They are living, breathing places where people still go to work, shop in markets, and pray in centuries-old mosques.

But beneath those streets lie the buried remains of Bronze Age buildings, Roman roads, and medieval fortifications. Excavations are difficult because life continues above them. Still, what’s already been uncovered tells a clear story: layer after layer, civilization after civilization, all built in the same place.

In cities like Aleppo and Damascus, I dont see the past as being buried and forgotten. I see it built into the streets and buildings people still use today. The layering never really stopped.

Staying in place wasn’t always a choice. Sometimes, it was the only option.

So what do we learn from the amazing examples above? Not every ancient city was rebuilt because people wanted to keep a tradition alive. Sometimes they stayed because the ground still gave them what they needed. There was a spring nearby. Or the fields still produced grain. Or the road still led to trade.

But other times, they stayed because the land had become part of who they were. The memory of ancestors, rituals, and buried homes gave the place weight. Walking away would have meant walking away from everything that gave their lives shape.

That’s why we find temples built over older temples. Streets rebuilt along the same lines. City walls rising again where they once fell. In other words, this wasn’t nostalgia. It was actually a way to keep going while staying grounded in what came before.

Technology is now catching up to what was always there

We’ve known for centuries that cities were built on older cities. But only recently have we started to understand just how many layers are hidden beneath the surface, and how much we’ve missed by only looking at what we can see.

With ground-penetrating radar, LIDAR, and other tools, archaeologists are finding older foundations below familiar sites. What we thought was the beginning turns out to be the middle. Cities like Troy and Uruk have become deeper, both in time and meaning, thanks to what these tools reveal. But LiDAR has made some amazing discoveries in the Amazn rainforest as well, where it practically discovered traces of a long-lost civilization whose traces were buried beneath dense layers of vegetation.

What I also find extremly intersting and peculiar is that in places like Jericho or Damascus, the remains of dozens of earlier settlements lie just below modern streets. They’re not ruins in a museum. They’re still part of the living city, buried but not gone.

Every time a shovel hits stone in these places, it brings up more than debris. It brings up decisions of the ancestors. To rebuild. To stay. To remember. And thats kind of what Zahi Hawass told me during one of my podcasts when I asked him about Giza, and how much “stuff” was still buried beneath the surface there. He replied saying that if you were to excavate in present-day Giza, youd likley come up with an item of two of the ancient Egyptian civilization. And I guess this applies to other sites across the world.

{ https://curiosmos.com/category/curious-lists/ }

02-05-2025 om 00:00 geschreven door peter  

Story by Theo Burman 

The pyramids may have been built using a sophisticated hydraulic system, according to a new study in Egypt.

Evidence of ancient Egyptians using water pressure to lift stone blocks was discovered at the Step Pyramid of Djoser, with a research team concluding its architecture matched that of a "hydraulic elevation mechanism."

Why It Matters

The theory could be the earliest evidence of hydraulic engineering in monumental architecture, and provides an explanation of how the pyramids were erected with tools previously thought unavailable at the time. If correct, it means that the Egyptians had a far greater understanding of hydraulic technology than previously thought.

What To Know

Most mainstream theories propose that the Egyptians used ramps and brute manpower as the primary methods for lifting the limestone blocks that make up the pyramids.

However, the study argues that the internal layout of the Step Pyramid, combined with the surrounding landscape, suggests that engineers may have used a volcano-style mechanism in which water-driven pressure helped elevate stones from within the structure.

The system would have operated in tandem with natural topography and artificially created reservoirs, potentially linking to a tributary of the Nile to create a temporary lake.

Stock Image: General view of the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara on February 9, 2024 in Giza, Egypt.

Getty Images© Getty Images

The main pieces of evidence supporting the hydraulic theory were the discovery of a "dry moat" surrounding the pyramid, as well as a massive stone structure known as the Gisr el-Mudir. These features resemble components of a modern water treatment system, including sedimentation and purification basins.

The Gisr el-Mudir could have functioned as a check dam to trap and regulate water flow, which in turn could have powered the lifting mechanism inside the pyramid. However, this setup implies a level of hydraulic sophistication way beyond all prior assumptions about how advanced ancient Egyptian engineering was.

What People Are Saying

In the abstract of the report, the researchers said: "The Step Pyramid of Djoser in Saqqâra, Egypt, is considered the oldest of the seven monumental pyramids built about 4,500 years ago. From transdisciplinary analysis, it was discovered that a hydraulic lift may have been used to build the pyramid.

"Based on our mapping of the nearby watersheds, we show that one of the unexplained massive Saqqâra structures, the Gisr el-Mudir enclosure, has the features of a check dam with the intent to trap sediment and water.

"The ancient architects may have raised the stones from the pyramid centre in a volcano fashion using the sediment-free water from the Dry Moat's south section. Ancient Egyptians are famous for their pioneering and mastery of hydraulics through canals for irrigation purposes and barges to transport huge stones."

What Happens Next

Researchers continue to investigate how the pyramids were built, with more focus being put into the possibility of hydraulic power.

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{ www.newsweek.com/ }

 

27-04-2025 om 19:55 geschreven door peter  

A photograph showing the ruins at Baalbek.

What we’ve found at sites like Göbekli Tepe, Karahantepe, Nabta Playa, Gunung Padang, and the deepest layers of Baalbek doesn’t align with the timeline printed in textbooks. If the dates are correct—and mounting evidence suggests they are—then our timeline of civilization is off by thousands of years. Despite this overwhelming evidence, history is not being corrected or updated. We continue to tach the same outdated information in school. Despite physical evidence that suggests that history as we know it is far more complex than what we believed only a couple o decades ago. In this article, I will take you across some of my favorite ancient sites and explain why they don’t match history as we are being told.

Göbekli Tepe Was Buried on Purpose—But Why?

Tthis is, I think, one of my favorite ancient sites and literally one of the oldest strcutres on Earth, and I have written about it on various oacacions where I have outlined why this site is such a history breaker. Tucked beneath a dusty hill in southeastern Turkey, Göbekli Tepe stunned the archaeological world when it was first excavated in the 1990s. Carbon dating placed the site at least 11,500 years old, making it not only older than the pyramids, but older than agriculture, pottery, or any form of writing.

Carved T-shaped megaliths, each weighing up to 20 tons, stand in circular formations. They’re decorated with reliefs of wild animals, abstract symbols, and possibly mythological beings. The stonework is not rough or experimental—it’s precise. Intentional. Studies have demonstrated that he builders of this ancient site used advanced geometrical reasoning. And then there’s the strangest part: the entire complex was deliberately buried in antiquity. Someone not only built it—they entombed it. No one knows why.

What purpose did it serve? A temple? A place of ritual gathering? A sky-watching observatory? Nothing about Göbekli Tepe fits the narrative of primitive nomads just learning how to sow seeds. Tis site breaks history because sites like it should not have been possible according to mainstream experts. Yet there it is. Göbekli Tepe is truly a history changer and not many people know about it.

Karahantepe Adds Depth—Literally and Figuratively one of the Oldest Strcutures on Earth

And a short distance away from Göbekli Tepe we have another shocker.

Just 35 kilometers from Göbekli Tepe lies Karahantepe, a site of the same age that may be even more complex. Unlike Göbekli’s open-air circles, Karahantepe includes deep, carved chambers—entire rooms built into the bedrock. More than 250 stone pillars have been uncovered so far, along with stylized human heads and abstract sculptures embedded in the walls. Who could have built these gigantic strcutres over 11,000 years ago? Where they really hunter-gatherers as mainstream experts suggest, or is there something more complex about these ancient people?

The complexity and site of this site was not a one-off anomaly. I believe that whoever built Göbekli Tepe was part of a broader cultural world—possibly a network of sacred or ceremonial sites. Karahantepe expands the story, suggesting the region was teeming with early symbolic architecture. And yet, just like Göbekli, it appears and disappears with no clear lineage, no gradual development, and no evolutionary trail. It’s as if it came from nowhere.

Nabta Playa May Have Tracked the Stars Before Egypt Had a Name

We cannot go through an article mentioning the oldest structures on Earth without mentioning this incredible acient site. In the Nubian Desert of southern Egypt, Nabta Playa looks at first like a scatter of rocks in the sand. But its alignment tells another story. Dating back 7,000 to 9,000 years, the stones were arranged to mark the rising of Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky—an event that would later become central to Egyptian calendar systems.

Long before pharaohs, this site may have served as both a ceremonial ground and a celestial clock. Buried cattle remains suggest ritual sacrifice, possibly tied to early pastoralist religion. This hints at a connection between astronomy, myth, and seasonal survival long before formal religion or kingdoms took shape. Though smaller in scale than Göbekli or Karahantepe, Nabta Playa reveals something similar: a deep concern with time, sky, and cosmic order. All from people we call “prehistoric.”

Gunung Padang Could Be the Oldest of Them All

Indonesia’s Gunung Padang might be the most controversial site on this list—but it could also be the most astonishing. On the surface, it looks like a stepped hill made of volcanic stone. But excavations in the last decade have revealed terraces, chambers, and layers of construction that extend 20 meters deep. Some geologists argue the deepest layers could date to as early as 20,000 BCE—a time when the Earth was still in the grip of the last Ice Age.

If proven true, it would be the oldest known human-built structure on Earth by a wide margin. But mainstream archaeologists remain skeptical. The core question is whether the deeper layers are artificial or natural. The debate is ongoing. Regardless of the final verdict, the site challenges our assumptions. At the very least, it shows human activity at the site far earlier than previously believed. At most, it suggests a lost chapter of human development buried—literally—beneath layers of time and earth.

Baalbek’s Megastones Hint at a Forgotten Foundation

Another one of my favorite sites.

High in the Bekaa Valley of Lebanon, the ruins of Baalbek are often credited to the Romans, who built temples to Jupiter and Bacchus atop its massive stone platform. But beneath those classical columns lies a deeper mystery—one that predates Roman engineering by millennia. At the heart of the platform are the Trilithon stones: three limestone blocks each weighing over 800 tons. Nearby, an unfinished stone known as the Stone of the Pregnant Woman weighs more than 1,000 tons. Even with today’s technology, moving and placing these megaliths would be a challenge.

No one knows how they were transported, lifted, or aligned with such precision—and the builders left no inscriptions, no clear cultural fingerprints. Some researchers argue the deepest layers of Baalbek’s foundation could stretch back to the pre-pottery Neolithic, possibly linked to the same horizon as Göbekli Tepe and Karahantepe. If that’s true, then Roman temples were built atop something far older—a platform whose origins remain undocumented. Baalbek’s base may not yet be as precisely dated as the others on this list, but it raises the same unsettling question: Who built the foundation—and when?

Why Were They Building at All?

This is the question that lingers. Why were people with no cities, no writing, no metallurgy, and supposedly no organizational complexity carving massive stones and aligning them to the stars? Some researchers believe these were spiritual centers. Others think they were calendars—designed to track the solstices, lunar cycles, or stellar movements crucial to seasonal survival. Still others suggest they were gathering places where ideas, stories, and collective memory were shared in symbolic form.

But here’s the problem: none of this fits with how we define “prehistory.” We were taught that humans built monuments after developing agriculture and complex societies. These sites flip that script. Maybe, just maybe, the desire to build came first—and everything else followed.

If even one of these sites is as old as the evidence suggests, then the timeline of human history needs serious revision. The builders were capable of organizing labor, understanding celestial cycles, and shaping stone on a massive scale. These weren’t scattered efforts. They show patterns — of intent, of knowledge, and of memory we no longer share. There’s still too much we don’t know. But it’s clear we’ve been starting the story too late.

{ https://curiosmos.com/category/ancient-civilizations/ }

24-04-2025 om 00:00 geschreven door peter  

Shutterstock

The mysterious climate crash that changed everything

Roughly 12,800 years ago, the Earth experienced a sudden, violent cooling event known as the Younger Dryas. Within decades, global temperatures dropped, megafauna went extinct, and entire ecosystems unraveled. No one knows exactly what caused it.

One of the most controversial theories—the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis—suggests that fragments of a massive comet struck Earth, triggering wildfires, floods, and atmospheric collapse. If such an impact occurred, it could have erased entire cultures in one swift blow.

But is there any trace of what may have existed before that disaster?

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Göbekli Tepe wasn’t alone

Gobekli Tepe is, by far, the oldest temple in the world and apparently, it is connected to a massive comet impact from around 13,000 years ago.

The discovery of Göbekli Tepe in southeastern Turkey stunned archaeologists. This is wihtout a doubt one of my favorite sites, for many reasons. Dated to around 9600 BCE, it predates Stonehenge and the pyramids by millennia. Its massive stone pillars, many over 5 meters tall and weighing up to 20 tons, were arranged in circular enclosures—carved with animals and symbols whose meanings are still unknown.

And yet, Göbekli Tepe is not alone.

• Karahan Tepe (Turkey), just 35 km away, is even older and features human-like statues and T-shaped pillars similar in style.

• Nevalı Çori, buried under a modern dam, showed early megalithic architecture from around 8500 BCE.

• Wadi Faynan (Jordan) and Ain Ghazal (Amman), both Neolithic sites, reveal complex social structures and large-scale building from 8500–7500 BCE.

• Tassili n’Ajjer (Algeria), though harder to date precisely, holds cave paintings of beings in strange suits, possibly over 10,000 years old.

These discoveries raise a serious question: How did people with no known agriculture or writing build such monuments? Did they inherit knowledge from an earlier culture—one wiped clean from the record?

Cities beneath the sea

During the last Ice Age, sea levels were more than 100 meters lower than today. As the glaciers melted, coastlines vanished. Much of humanity’s early settlements—always near water—would now lie submerged, often beyond reach of standard archaeological tools.

And yet, some of them have been found.

• Dwarka, off the coast of India, is an underwater city with stone walls, grids, and anchors, dated by some researchers to at least 7500 BCE.

• Pavlopetri (Greece), a sunken Bronze Age city, features streets, buildings, and a central square—submerged around 1000 BCE, but possibly older.

• Atlit Yam (Israel), buried beneath the Mediterranean, contains stone houses, graves, and a stone circle—dated to 7000 BCE.

These cities suggest an entire world of early human habitation may now lie underwater—unmapped, unstudied, and forgotten. We know more about the surface of Mars then the surface of our oceans. And that is a fact.

Gaps too large to ignore

Archaeology is often focused on what can be confirmed. But it’s the missing pieces that tell another story. There is a gap of thousands of years between the Ice Age and the rise of “official” civilizations like Sumer and Egypt. Yet in that gap, we find stunning stonework, monumental architecture, and sudden cultural shifts.

Even the Sphinx at Giza has been reexamined by some geologists, who point to weathering patterns consistent with heavy rainfall—rain that Egypt hasn’t seen since at least 7000 BCE. Of course this is a massive controversy and this timeline is not acepted in mainstream science.

If these structures predate what we call history, who built them?

Are myths memory?

Ancient cultures from every corner of the world carry stories of floods, sunken lands, and golden ages lost to time. The Greeks had Atlantis. The Hindus speak of long cycles of destruction and rebirth. The Sumerians recorded kings reigning for thousands of years before the flood.

For decades, such stories were dismissed as metaphor. But as more evidence comes to light, researchers are beginning to ask: Were these myths rooted in real events—the fading memories of a civilization that fell beneath the waves?

The future of the past

Advances in LIDAR scanning, satellite imagery, and underwater exploration are rapidly transforming our view of the past. New sites are being discovered in the Amazon, under jungles in Cambodia, and possibly even beneath the sands of Egypt.

As our tools improve, so do the odds of finding proof—of cities that came before, of cultures lost to sea and flame, and of a history far deeper than textbooks allow.

What if we’re the second or third version of civilization?

What if everything we’ve built rests on the bones of a world we’ve already lost? The clues are mounting—and the silence between them might be the loudest signal of all. Did lost civilizations before history disappear in a global catastrophe? From sunken cities to ancient monuments, new clues suggest we’ve barely scratched the surface. And what if we are just a second or ever thrid version of civilization. But more on that, in a different article.

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 { https://curiosmos.com/category/ancient-civilizations/ }

23-04-2025 om 23:09 geschreven door peter  

Newly found mummies reveal new human ancestor that broke off from humanity thousands of years ago

• READ MORE:  Mysterious underwater 'pyramid' believed to be 12,000 years old reshapes history

By CHRIS MELORE, ASSISTANT SCIENCE EDITOR FOR DAILYMAIL.COM

Shocking DNA findings from two mummies discovered in Northern Africa may rewrite the family tree of human history.

Scientists from the Max Planck Institute in Germany found that these ancient corpses unearthed in present-day Libya carried the DNA of a previously unknown group of humans from 7,000 years ago.

This lost group in the Sahara Desert had a distinct genetic makeup that was much different than scientists expected to find out among ancient humans traveling in and out of Africa.

Between 5,000 and 14,500 years ago, this desert region was a lush and fertile area known as the Green Sahara.

That has led scientists to believe that ancient humans in this part of the world would have interacted more with other human tribes arriving from sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East.

Instead, this lost group appears to have completely isolated themselves from other human populations migrating to the Green Sahara.

In fact, the mummy DNA had significantly less Neanderthal DNA than ancient humans living outside of Africa in that era, challenging what researchers assumed about the ancient world and how much these cultures intermingled.

First author Nada Salem from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology said: 'Our research challenges previous assumptions about North African population history and highlights the existence of a deeply rooted and long-isolated genetic lineage.'

Scientists have discovered 2 mummies in present-day Libya which appear to be from a long lost lineage of early humans

The skeletons were identified as being from two women, buried in the Takarkori rock shelter in southwestern Libya.

Instead of sharing a similar genetic makeup with modern populations from Africa, the Middle East, and Europe, these women had close genetic ties to a group of scavengers from 15,000 years ago.

The German researchers said these foragers lived in caves in present-day Morocco during the last Ice Age.

Both the group from the Ice Age and the newly discovered mummies from the Green Sahara have a DNA makeup that is completely different from sub-Saharan Africans.

This appears to prove that the two populations on the continent stayed relatively separate, even though this fertile region provided ample opportunity for the communities to meet and eventually interbreed.

In comparison to ancient humans found outside of Africa from 7,000 years ago, the Takarkori mummies have only a small trace of Neandertal DNA - far less than the one to two percent in Middle Eastern farmers of that time period.

Researchers noted that this unique lineage of humans no longer exists in its original form in the modern world.

The DNA of the Takarkori mummies now only makes up a part of the greater genetic puzzle in humans today.

However, the team explained that 'this ancestry is still a central genetic component of present-day North African people, highlighting their unique heritage.' 

Scientists from Germany say the 2 female skeletons trace their ancestry back to a population of scavengers from the Ice Age 15,000 years ago

Roughly 7,000 years ago, the Sahara Desert was actually a fertile land that scientists now refer to as the Green Sahara. It was a region that would have been ideal for farming and herding livestock

As for how this changes the story of early human history, the study published in the journal Nature contended that the mummies prove that early agricultural practices spread by one group teaching others how to farm and herd livestock.

This practice, known as cultural diffusion, means that the lost group of humans learned new ideas and shared their own with outsiders, but rarely intermarried or lived together.

Based on this theory, people in the Sahara started herding livestock around 7,000 to 8,000 years ago. Those ideas likely came from ancient travelers making their way from the Middle East.

The Green Sahara's grassy plains and water sources were perfect for grazing animals, so it made sense for people to adopt this lifestyle.

Based on the genetic results of the Takarkori mummies, it's clear that the Middle Eastern farmers did not permanently migrate to this area, according to the study.

This 'migration theory' would have meant that Middle Eastern herders moved into the Green Sahara with their animals, bringing their genes along, and eventually changing the genome of the local population.

However, none of this appears to have taken place, and herding actually spread throughout Northern Africa because it was a practical skill, not part of a cultural takeover.

{ https://www.dailymail.co.uk/ }

19-04-2025 om 21:24 geschreven door peter  

The Antikythera Mechanism has long been hailed as a marvel of ancient technology, frequently referred to as the world’s first analog computer. But despite decades of study and technological advancements in imaging and simulation, its exact purpose and level of precision remain a subject of considerable debate. A recent study adds a new dimension to this discussion, raising the possibility that the Mechanism may have functioned far less reliably than previously assumed—if it was designed to actually function at all.

Discovered in 1901 among the remains of a shipwreck off the coast of the Greek island of Antikythera, the Mechanism has been dated to the late second or early first century BC. Since then, scholars have attempted to determine how this complex arrangement of gears and dials was used in antiquity. The device includes a hand crank, dozens of interlocking gears, and multiple indicators that, according to researchers, could show the date on both Egyptian and Greek calendars, track the positions of the sun, moon, and known planets within the zodiac, and even predict solar and lunar eclipses. By any measure, it appeared to be an engineering marvel well beyond its time.

Only one such device has ever been discovered, and that has fueled intense scholarly interest and a wide array of interpretations. Some propose that it was used by court astrologers, while others believe it may have served educational or demonstrative purposes. Still others suggest it was a prototype from an inventor whose full vision was never realized.

• Famous Antikythera Shipwreck Yields New Remarkable Discoveries
• New analysis of Antikythera Mechanism reveals clues to one of history’s greatest puzzles

Regardless of its original function, the level of craftsmanship displayed by the Mechanism is undeniable. However, recent findings challenge earlier assumptions about its effectiveness.

New Modeling Reveals Severe Functional Limitations

In a study submitted April 1 to the preprint server arXiv, a team of Argentinian scientists introduced a computer simulation of the Antikythera Mechanism that incorporates both structural inaccuracies and the device's distinctive triangle-shaped gear teeth, the latteer an element that earlier reconstructions tended to simplify or overlook.

A realistic model of what the Antikythera Mechanism is believed to have looked like in its pristine, original state.

(Mogi Vincente/CC BY-SA 2.5).

This simulation sought to replicate not only the intended function of the Mechanism, but also the real-world implications of its imperfections. Because the gears were not spaced with exact uniformity, and due to the geometric effects introduced by the triangular teeth, the researchers were able to estimate how the Mechanism would have actually operated in practice.

What they found was surprising: the device could only be turned approximately four months forward before it jammed or the gears disengaged entirely. At that point, the user would have been required to manually reset the entire system before using it again.

This finding calls into question whether the Antikythera Mechanism could have been intended for long-term use. One possibility, raised by the authors of the study, is that the device was never designed to operate for extended periods without manual correction. It may have functioned more like a mechanical watch that periodically requires winding and adjustment. This would suggest that its builders were aware of its operational limits and may have factored that into its intended usage.

Yet this interpretation is at odds with the extraordinary complexity and precision seen in the gearwork. If the goal was merely to produce a demonstrative or decorative object, it is difficult to understand why so much care would have gone into such intricate engineering. The design includes dozens of gears, many of which are nested and coordinated in ways that suggest a serious understanding of astronomical cycles and mechanical principles.

Fragment A (rear) of the Antikythera mechanism, which consists of a complex system of 32 wheels and plates bearing inscriptions relating to the signs of the zodiac and the months.

(Marsyas/CC BY-SA 3.0).

Another explanation put forward by the researchers is that the apparent inaccuracies in the device may be a side effect of its corroded state. The Antikythera Mechanism spent more than two millennia submerged underwater, and as a result much of its structure is now corroded, and many parts are missing or deformed. Even with the aid of CT scanning and advanced imaging techniques, modern researchers may be working from incomplete or misleading data, sabotaging their attempts to recreate the Mechanism’s action.

• Gravitational Wave Researchers Cast New Light on Antikythera Mechanism
• Spectacular new artifacts recovered from 2,050-year-old Antikythera Shipwreck

The simulation developed in the recent study was based on current measurements, but if the device’s original gear placements and teeth were more precisely constructed than what survives today, its real-world performance could have been significantly better than suggested by the model. The researchers acknowledge this possibility, noting that “CT scans can only provide a certain level of resolution, and two thousand years of corrosion may have warped or distorted the components far beyond their original state.”

Uncertainties Remain (and May Always Remain)

If the Mechanism originally functioned with higher accuracy and less mechanical resistance, then it could indeed have been used as a reliable astronomical calculator, capable of producing forecasts, tracking planetary movements, and modeling calendrical systems with a high degree of precision.

Regardless of which interpretation proves closer to the truth, the Antikythera Mechanism certainly looks like a remarkable artifact. Its complexity is unmatched in the archaeological record for more than a thousand years following its creation, and if it really worked it was an amazing achievement.

Lego model of the Antikythera Mechanism.

(Marek Mazurkiewicz/CC BY-SA 3.0).

As imaging techniques improve and further computational models are developed, researchers may yet uncover more details about how it was built, and how it was meant to operate. Then again, they might discover that the results of the analysis by the Argentinian scientists is correct, and what they have is either a failed engineering experiment or a device made for fun that had no deeper purpose.

Regardless of what the real answer turns out to be, it is clear that the Antikythera Mechanism fascinates people today just as much as it did more than a century ago when it was first rescued from its watery burial.

• Top image: Fragments of the Antikythera Mechanism, an Ancient Greek device long believe to be a type of analog computer, on display at the National Archaeological Museum in Athens.
• Source: joyofmuseums/CC BY-SA 4.0.

By Nathan Falde

{ https://www.ancient-origins.net/artifacts-0 }

17-04-2025 om 20:57 geschreven door peter  

Did a Pole Shift 41,000 Years Ago Doom the Neanderthals to Extinction?

Newly published research suggests that prehistoric Homo sapiens developed innovative ways to protect themselves from increased ultraviolet (UV) radiation during periods of extreme instability in Earth’s magnetic field, while their close cousins the Neanderthals did not. While this may not have been the only reason why Neanderthals went extinct, it might very well have been the most decisive cause of their decline.

These environmental shifts, known as geomagnetic excursions (or more popularly as pole shifts), happen when Earth’s magnetic poles wander from their usual positions due to changes in the planet’s liquid outer core, and they have happened at different times throughout history. One notable event, the Laschamps excursion, occurred around 40,000 to 42,000 years ago. During this time, Earth’s magnetic field dramatically weakened to about 10 percent of its current strength, allowing much more radiation to reach the planet’s surface. The magnetic North Pole shifted from the Arctic and dropped down near the equator.

The Earth’s magnetic field, which is produced by electrical currents in the molten iron core, normally protects the planet from harmful cosmic rays and solar particles. A weakened field reduces this protection, thinning the ozone layer and increasing UV exposure.

As a result of this weakened shield, auroras that are typically seen only near the poles may have been visible across much wider areas. “Auroras would have been visible in much wider areas, possibly even near the equator,” said Agnit Mukhopadhyay, a University of Michigan researcher, in an interview with New Scientist.

• Chaos and Cover-ups: What Evidence Exists of an Ancient Pole Shift?
• New Evidence Questions the Time and Place of Neanderthal Extinction

While auroras can be beautiful, in this case they would have been harbingers of doom. This surge in UV radiation would have posed a serious risk to both Homo sapiens and Neanderthals, and would have required meaningful adaptations to survive—and as Mukhopadhyay and his fellow researchers explain in a new article published in Science Advances, the evidence shows that our human ancestors rose to the challenge, while Neanderthals did not.

Spectacular Aurora borealis as seen from Abisko National Park in Sweden,of the type that would have been seen frequently over the Northern Hemisphere 41,000 years ago.

(pavel.shyshkouski/CC BY-SA 4.0).

Two Closely Related Species, and Two Wildly Divergent Fates

Archaeological records indicate that Homo sapiens began creating tailored clothing during this time, using tools such as needles and hide scrapers. Raven Garvey, an anthropologist at the University of Michigan, noted in Discover Magazine that this clothing likely served a dual purpose. “Tailored clothing could have also provided another unintended benefit—protection from sun damage,” she said.

In addition to clothing, Homo sapiens increasingly used ochre—a reddish pigment made of iron oxide, clay, and silica—during this period. When applied to the skin, ochre offers natural protection against the sun.

“There have been some experimental tests that show it has sunscreen-like properties. It’s a pretty effective sunscreen, and there are also ethnographic populations that have used it primarily for that purpose,” Garvey explained.

These adaptations likely gave Homo sapiens an edge over Neanderthals, who did not seem to adopt similar sun protection measures. Some researchers believe the harsh environmental conditions brought on by the Laschamps excursion contributed to Neanderthal extinction, as their inability to adapt to increased radiation would have had lethal consequences. Scientists have been searching for reasons to explain why Neanderthals and Homo sapies met such divergent fates around 40,000 years ago, and different responses to an environmental emergency could certainly explain it.

A red ochre spring near Elland in West Yorkshire in the UK.

(Humphrey Bolton/Geograph Britain and Ireland/CC BY-SA 2.0).

Seeking shelter in caves was another behavior that helped humans survive. These natural structures provided some level of protection from UV exposure.

“We found that many of those regions actually match pretty closely with early human activity from 41,000 years ago, specifically an increase in the use of caves and an increase in the use of prehistoric sunscreen,” Mukhopadhyay said.

Modeling a Catastrophe

To better understand these ancient events, researchers at the University of Michigan developed complex models simulating the effects of the Laschamps excursion. They integrated a global geomagnetic field model, a space plasma environment model, and an aurora prediction model. Using magnetic signatures locked in volcanic rocks and sediments, Mukhopadhyay and his team reconstructed a detailed 3D image of Earth’s magnetic field during the Laschamps event.

• Could a rapid pole shift change the fate of life on Earth?
• Cataclysm, Mass Extinctions, and the Consequent Myths

“In the study, we combined all of the regions where the magnetic field would not have been connected, allowing cosmic radiation, or any kind of energetic particles from the Sun, to seep all the way into the ground,” Mukhopadhyay said.

While the findings are not definitive, they offer a new perspective on how early humans may have responded to climate and environmental changes.

The research implies that early Homo sapiens may have developed strategic behavioral responses to environmental stress. Though Homo sapiens and Neanderthals coexisted in Europe starting around 56,000 years ago, Neanderthals disappeared during the time of the Laschamps event, which now seems unlikely to have been a coincidence. The innovative protective strategies employed by Homo sapiens may have contributed not only to their survival but also to their eventual spread across Europe and Asia.

Prehistoric human woman applying natural sunscreen to her child’s face.

(Clement Phillip/Alamy).

Could It Happen Again?

It isn’t known when the next geomagnetic excursion or pole shift will happen. But it does seem to be a matter of if rather than when, and if it happened today, it could be devastating. Satellites and navigation apps would be rendered useless, and power grids would be disrupted at a cost of up to US$48 billion each day in the United States alone. Scientists say that certain parts of the planet could become all but inhabitable for centuries, as the UV radiation reaching the Earth’s surface at those spots would be too strong to survive.

If there is any good news, it is that humans found a way to adapt and ride out the storm during the Laschamps event. Perhaps the same thing would happen this time, although at this point it does seem we are completely unprepared for such a catastrophe, while at the same time being more vulnerable—and that is deeply concerning.

• Top image: Neanderthal display at the National Museum of Natural Sciences in Madrid.
• Source: Tiia Monto/CC BY-SA 3.0.

By Nathan Falde

{ https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-archaeology }

17-04-2025 om 20:40 geschreven door peter  

Oude Vimana: 5 Belangrijke Dingen om te Weten over India’s Mythologische Vliegende Machines

De Geheimen van de Oude Indische Mythologische Technologie Onthullen

De Vimana, vliegende machines uit het oude India, hebben al lange tijd de verbeelding van historici, wetenschappers en enthousiastelingen gevangen. Deze mysterieuze luchtvaartuigen worden genoemd in oude Indiase teksten, wat velen doet afvragen of ze de sleutel bevatten tot het begrijpen van geavanceerde technologieën uit een vervlogen tijdperk. Dit artikel verkent vijf essentiële feiten over deze fascinerende Vimana en hun betekenis in de oude Indiase geschiedenis.

1. Oorsprong in Oude Indiase Teksten

De beschrijvingen van de Vimana in deze teksten zijn intrigerend, omdat ze niet alleen verwijzen naar de fysieke kenmerken van de voertuigen, maar ook naar de spirituele en symbolische betekenis ervan. De Vimana wordt vaak geassocieerd met goddelijke wezens, en hun vlucht door de lucht weerspiegelt een verbinding tussen de hemelse en aardse rijken.

1.1. De Vimana in de Ramayana

In de Ramayana, een van de twee grote epische verhalen van het oude India, wordt de Pushpaka Vimana beschreven als een schitterend luchtvoertuig dat door de god Kubera is gemaakt. Deze Vimana kan zich verplaatsen met de snelheid van de gedachte en is in staat om te reizen naar elke gewenste bestemming. De beschrijving van de Pushpaka Vimana als een gouden, met juwelen versierde wagen, die niet alleen luxe maar ook kracht en goddelijke waarde uitstraalt, benadrukt de rol van technologie in de oude Indiase cultuur als iets dat verder gaat dan louter materieel nut. Het wordt een symbool van macht, status en de verbinding met het goddelijke.

1.2. Technologische Beschrijvingen

De Veda's en andere oude teksten bevatten passages die gedetailleerde instructies geven over de constructie van Vimana. Er zijn beschrijvingen van verschillende materialen die gebruikt worden, evenals de methoden voor de aandrijving en navigatie. De teksten suggereren dat de oude Indiërs niet alleen een basiskennis van de natuurkunde hadden, maar ook een opmerkelijk inzicht in de mogelijkheden van luchtvaarttechnologie. Sommige interpretaties van deze teksten suggereren zelfs dat ze verwijzen naar technologieën die verder gaan dan wat we vandaag de dag begrijpen, wat aanleiding geeft tot speculaties over de aard van deze oude kennis.

1.3. Spirituele Betekenis en Symboliek

Naast hun technologische implicaties, hebben de Vimana ook een diepere spirituele betekenis. In de oude Indiase cultuur wordt het concept van de luchtvaart vaak gezien als een symbool van de reis van de ziel. De Vimana kan worden geïnterpreteerd als een voertuig voor spirituele ascensie, waarmee de ziel de hogere rijken of de hemelen bereikt. Dit idee van transformatie en ascensie wordt vaak teruggevonden in de mythologieën van verschillende culturen, maar de Indiase teksten hebben een unieke manier om dit te verankeren in de fysieke realiteit van een voertuig.

1.4. Vergelijkingen met Andere Culturen

Het idee van vliegende voertuigen of luchtvaartuigen is niet uniek voor de Indiase cultuur. In andere oude beschavingen, zoals de Egyptische, Griekse en Mesopotamische, zijn er ook verhalen over goddelijke of magische voertuigen. Deze vergelijkingen bieden een fascinerend perspectief op hoe verschillende culturen de concepten van technologie en spiritualiteit hebben verweven. Wat de Vimana echter bijzonder maakt, is de combinatie van zowel praktische als spirituele aspecten, die samen een rijk en complex verhaal creëren.

1.5. Moderne Interpretaties en Invloeden

In de moderne tijd zijn de Vimana opnieuw in de belangstelling gekomen, vooral in de context van de populariteit van UFO-onderzoek en de speculatie over oude astronautentheorieën. Sommige onderzoekers en enthousiastelingen hebben geprobeerd verbanden te leggen tussen de beschrijvingen van de Vimana en moderne vliegende schotels of andere geavanceerde technologieën. Hoewel deze ideeën vaak omstreden zijn en niet breed geaccepteerd worden door de academische gemeenschap, weerspiegelt het de blijvende fascinatie voor de Vimana en de mysteries van de oude Indiase teksten.

De Vimana vertegenwoordigt een opmerkelijk aspect van de oude Indiase cultuur, waarbij technologie, mythologie en spiritualiteit op unieke wijze met elkaar verweven zijn. Door de lens van de Veda's en de epische verhalen als de Ramayana en Mahabharata, krijgen we niet alleen inzicht in de technologische aspiraties van de oude Indiërs, maar ook in hun diepere spirituele verlangens en symboliek. Het blijft een bron van inspiratie en mysterie, die ons herinnert aan de rijke geschiedenis en de diepgaande wijsheid van de oude beschavingen.

2. Beschrijving en Capaciteiten

De oude Vimana, zoals beschreven in verschillende Indiase geschriften, zijn fascinerende luchtvaartuigen die de verbeelding van velen hebben gevangen. Deze mythische voertuigen worden vaak afgebeeld als geavanceerde machines die niet alleen door de lucht konden vliegen, maar ook in staat waren om enorme afstanden te overbruggen, en zelfs interplanetaire reizen te maken. De beschrijvingen van Vimana zijn te vinden in teksten zoals de Mahabharata en de Ramayana, en schetsen een beeld van technologie die ver vooruit lijkt te zijn op onze huidige mogelijkheden.

2.1. Voortstuwingssystemen

De voortstuwingssystemen van de Vimana worden vaak omschreven als zeer geavanceerd, met mechanica die de wetten van de zwaartekracht en aerodynamica op een unieke manier benutten. Volgens sommige oude teksten zouden de Vimana zijn aangedreven door een combinatie van zonne-energie, kwikdamp en andere nog onbekende energiebronnen. Dit wijst op een diepgaand begrip van energie en natuurkunde, wat suggereert dat de oude beschavingen die deze machines bouwden, beschikten over kennis en technologie die verder ging dan wat we vandaag de dag begrijpen.

De constructie van de Vimana zou bestaan uit verschillende metalen, waaronder goud, wat niet alleen de esthetische aantrekkingskracht van deze voertuigen vergrootte, maar ook bijdroeg aan hun functionaliteit. Goud is een uitstekende geleider van elektriciteit en zou kunnen zijn gebruikt in combinatie met andere materialen om de energie die nodig was voor de voortstuwing en andere systemen te optimaliseren.

2.2. Reizen door de lucht en in de ruimte

Een van de meest opmerkelijke eigenschappen van de Vimana is hun vermogen om te vliegen. Volgens de overleveringen konden deze vliegtuigen niet alleen grote afstanden overbruggen, maar ook verschillende hoogtes bereiken, van de laagste luchtlagen tot de hoogste sferen. Sommige verhalen suggereren zelfs dat ze in staat waren om de atmosfeer van de aarde te verlaten en andere planeten te bereiken. Dit idee roept vragen op over de kennis van astronomie en ruimtevaart in oude beschavingen en suggereert dat ze misschien al een concept van ruimteverkenning hadden.

2.3. Wapens en defensieve systemen

Naast hun indrukwekkende voortstuwingssystemen waren de Vimana volgens de teksten ook uitgerust met geavanceerde wapens en defensieve mechanismen. Deze systemen waren ontworpen om hun piloten te beschermen tegen vijandelijke aanvallen en om strategische voordelen te behalen in oorlogssituaties. Er zijn verhalen die suggereren dat de Vimana konden worden bewapend met krachtige energiekanonnen en raketten, die vernietigende impact konden hebben op land- en zeewaterdoelen.

Bovendien wordt er in sommige teksten gesproken over defensieve systemen die de Vimana in staat stelden om zich te camoufleren of zelfs onzichtbaar te worden voor vijandelijke waarnemers. Dit zou kunnen wijzen op een geavanceerd begrip van stealth-technologie, wat de status van deze voertuigen als goddelijke machines verder versterkt.

2.4. Beheersen van de elementen

Een van de meest intrigerende aspecten van de Vimana is het vermogen dat aan hen wordt toegeschreven om de elementen te beheersen. Sommige teksten beweren dat deze vliegtuigen in staat waren om stormen te veroorzaken, weerpatronen te veranderen en zelfs aardbevingen te initiëren. Dit vermogen zou niet alleen de kracht van de technologie van de Vimana benadrukken, maar ook hun goddelijke status in de ogen van de mensen. Het idee dat een voertuig in staat is om de natuur te beheersen, roept beelden op van een tijd waarin technologie en spiritualiteit nauw met elkaar verbonden waren.

De oude Vimana vertegenwoordigen een fascinerend snijpunt van technologie, mythologie en spiritualiteit. Hun beschrijvingen in oude teksten geven ons een glimp van een tijd waarin de mensheid misschien verder gevorderd was dan we ons kunnen voorstellen. Of de Vimana nu een product zijn van overdreven verhalen of een weerspiegeling van verloren technologie, ze blijven een intrigerend onderwerp van onderzoek en speculatie. Het idee dat deze vliegende machines niet alleen waren ontworpen voor transport, maar ook een symbool van macht en mystiek waren, zorgt ervoor dat ze een blijvende fascinatie oproepen in de moderne wereld.

3. Oude Indische Wetenschap en Vimana Technologie

De Vimana, een term die vaak wordt gebruikt in de oude Indiase teksten, verwijst naar luchtvaartuigen of vliegende machines die worden beschreven in verschillende epische verhalen, zoals de Mahabharata en de Ramayana. Volgens deze teksten waren Vimanas niet alleen indrukwekkende luchtvaartuigen, maar ook complex in hun ontwerp en functionaliteit. Deze beschrijvingen hebben geleid tot een fascinerende discussie over de mogelijke technologische kennis van de oude Indiërs en hun vermogen om geavanceerde technologieën te ontwikkelen die vergelijkbaar kunnen zijn met moderne innovaties.

3.1. Technologische Verkenningen in de Oude Indische Wetenschap

De oude Indiase beschaving heeft een rijke geschiedenis van wetenschappelijke en technologische vooruitgang. De bijdrage aan wiskunde, astronomie en geneeskunde is goed gedocumenteerd. Bijvoorbeeld, de concepten van nul en het decimale systeem, dat zijn oorsprong in India vindt, zijn fundamenteel voor de ontwikkeling van de moderne wiskunde. Daarnaast waren Indiase astronomen zoals Aryabhata en Varahamihira pioniers in hun studies van de sterren en planeten, en hun werken bevatten opmerkelijke observaties die eeuwenlang invloedrijk bleven.

De geneeskunde, vooral de Ayurvedische geneeskunde, getuigt ook van een diepgaande kennis van anatomie, farmacologie en chirurgie. Het idee dat oude Indiërs niet alleen de aarde maar ook de lucht konden beheersen, sluit aan bij hun algehele wetenschappelijke nieuwsgierigheid en inventiviteit. De Vimanas worden soms gezien als een logisch vervolg op deze technologische vooruitgang, waarbij men speculeert dat ze misschien gebruik maakten van principes die nog niet volledig zijn begrepen of ontdekt in de moderne wetenschap.

3.2. Vimana en Antizwaartekracht

Een van de meest intrigerende aspecten van de Vimana-technologie is de suggestie dat deze voertuigen gebruik zouden kunnen maken van antizwaartekracht en andere geavanceerde principes van de natuurkunde. In sommige oude teksten wordt gesproken over een soort "vliegende kracht" die de Vimana's in staat stelde te stijgen en te navigeren door de lucht, wat zou kunnen duiden op een technologie die verder gaat dan de brandstofgedreven systemen die we vandaag de dag kennen. Sommige onderzoekers hebben gepostuleerd dat deze beschrijvingen van antizwaartekracht kunnen resoneren met hedendaagse theorieën in de fysica, zoals de theorie van kwantumzwaartekracht of andere nog te ontdekken principes die ons begrip van de zwaartekracht zouden kunnen uitbreiden.

3.3. Nucleaire Energie en Oude Kennis

Een ander fascinerend aspect van de Vimana-technologie is de speculatie over het gebruik van nucleaire energie. Sommige teksten suggereren dat Vimana's werden aangedreven door een vorm van energie die lijkt op wat wij nu beschouwen als nucleaire energie. Dit heeft geleid tot speculaties dat er in het oude India een begrip van nucleaire reacties was, wat op zijn beurt vragen oproept over de oorsprong van deze kennis en de ethische implicaties van het gebruik ervan. Het idee dat een oude beschaving in staat zou zijn geweest om dergelijke krachtige energiebronnen te beheersen, roept zowel verwondering als scepsis op.

3.4. Hedendaagse Relevantie en Debat

De discussie over de Vimana-technologie en de wetenschappelijke prestaties van het oude India is niet zonder controverse. Veel van deze theorieën zijn nog steeds onbewijsbaar en worden vaak als pseudowetenschap bestempeld. Desondanks blijven ze een onderwerp van fascinatie voor zowel onderzoekers als het bredere publiek. De mogelijkheid dat oude beschavingen beschikken over kennis die verloren is gegaan of vergeten is, spreekt tot de verbeelding en nodigt uit tot verder onderzoek.

Wetenschappers en historici blijven debatteren over de haalbaarheid van deze ideeën en de noodzaak om oude teksten en archeologische vondsten grondiger te onderzoeken. De Vimana en de technologieën die eraan worden toegeschreven, kunnen ons helpen om niet alleen het verleden van de oude Indiase beschaving te begrijpen, maar ook om bredere vragen te stellen over de ontwikkeling van technologie door de mensheid in zijn geheel.

In conclusie, de Vimana-technologie biedt een fascinerend venster op de oude Indiase wetenschappelijke prestaties en roept vragen op over wat mogelijk is op het gebied van technologie en menselijke kennis. Hoewel veel van deze theorieën nog steeds onbewezen blijven, blijft de zoektocht naar antwoorden een bron van inspiratie en nieuwsgierigheid voor veel mensen.

4 . Vimana en Extraterrestische Theorieën

De Vimana, mythische vliegende voertuigen die in oude Indische teksten worden beschreven, zijn de afgelopen decennia onderwerp van veel speculatie en fascinatie. Deze voertuigen, die vaak worden afgebeeld als majestueuze vliegtuigen in de oude geschriften, hebben geleid tot een aantal intrigerende theorieën over hun oorsprong en functie. Een van de meest opmerkelijke speculaties is de mogelijkheid dat deze Vimana niet alleen uit de menselijke verbeelding voortkwamen, maar mogelijk ook buitenaardse invloeden of technologieën weerspiegelen.

De oude teksten, zoals de Mahabharata en de Ramayana, beschrijven Vimana als indrukwekkende machines die in staat zijn om te vliegen door de lucht en zelfs door de ruimte. Dit roept de vraag op hoe mensen in die tijd, duizenden jaren geleden, zulke geavanceerde technologie konden begrijpen en beschrijven. Voorstanders van de buitenaardse theorieën stellen dat het idee van Vimana een bewijs kan zijn van de aanwezigheid van oude astronauten die de aarde bezochten en hun kennis en technologie met de mensheid deelden. Dit idee is niet nieuw; het is een terugkerend thema in verschillende culturen en mythologieën over de wereld.

De basis voor deze theorieën ligt in de overtuiging dat de beschrijvingen van Vimana zo geavanceerd zijn dat ze niet door de toenmalige menselijke kennis en technologie konden zijn voortgebracht. Voorstanders van deze visie wijzen op de gedetailleerde beschrijvingen van de constructie, het ontwerp en de werking van deze machines. Sommige teksten beschrijven zelfs de mogelijkheid van interplanetaire reizen, wat de veronderstelling ondersteunt dat de schrijvers mogelijk technologieën en ideeën hebben geïnspireerd door buitenaardse bezoekers.

Desondanks blijft de mainstream wetenschap sceptisch over deze theorieën. Veel wetenschappers wijzen erop dat de beschrijvingen van Vimana in de context van mythologie en symboliek moeten worden gezien, eerder dan als feitelijke technologie. Ze benadrukken dat de oude Indiërs niet over de middelen beschikten om vliegtuigen te bouwen zoals we die vandaag de dag kennen, en dat de beschrijvingen van deze voertuigen meer metaforisch dan letterlijk zijn. Het idee dat buitenaardse wezens in de oudheid de aarde bezochten, wordt vaak bestempeld als pseudowetenschappelijk en niet ondersteund door hard bewijs.

Toch houdt de fascinatie voor Vimana en de bijbehorende buitenaardse theorieën aan. Diverse auteurs hebben boeken geschreven die deze thema's verkennen, en er zijn talloze documentaires geproduceerd die de mogelijkheid van buitenaardse invloed op de menselijke geschiedenis onderzoeken. Deze media hebben bijgedragen aan het behoud van de belangstelling voor het onderwerp en hebben een breed publiek aangetrokken dat openstaat voor het idee dat de geschiedenis van de mensheid misschien niet zo eenvoudig is als het lijkt.

Een ander belangrijk aspect van de Vimana-theorieën is de culturele impact die ze hebben gehad op het denken over ruimtevaart en technologie. De concepten van vliegende voertuigen en interplanetaire reizen zijn tegenwoordig populair in de wetenschap en fictie, en de oude beschrijvingen van Vimana kunnen worden gezien als een vroege verkenning van deze ideeën. Dit heeft geleid tot discussies over hoe oude beschavingen technologieën en ideeën hebben ontwikkeld en hoe deze ideeën door de tijd heen zijn geëvolueerd.

Sommige onderzoekers hebben zelfs parallellen getrokken tussen de beschrijvingen van Vimana en moderne technologieën zoals drones en ruimtevaartuigen. Dit heeft geleid tot speculaties over wat er mogelijk is geweest in de oude wereld die we ons vandaag de dag nog niet volledig kunnen voorstellen. De vraag blijft: waren de Vimana louter producten van de menselijke verbeelding, of zijn ze een echo van een meer geavanceerde technologie die verloren is gegaan in de annalen van de tijd?

In conclusie, de theorieën over Vimana en hun mogelijke buitenaardse oorsprong blijven een fascinerend onderwerp van discussie. Hoewel de mainstream wetenschap deze ideeën vaak afwijst, blijven ze een bron van inspiratie en nieuwsgierigheid voor velen. De combinatie van mythologie, technologie en de mogelijkheid van contact met buitenaardse beschavingen maakt dit onderwerp tot een intrigerende verkenning van de menselijke geschiedenis en onze plaats in het universum.

5. Moderne Interpretaties en Populaire Cultuur

In de afgelopen jaren hebben de Vimana een opmerkelijke heropleving gekend, niet alleen binnen de academische wereld, maar ook in de populaire cultuur. Deze mythische vliegende machines, diep geworteld in de oude Indiase teksten zoals de Veda’s en de Mahabharata, zijn een bron van fascinatie geworden voor zowel wetenschappers als kunstenaars. De Vimana worden vaak afgebeeld als symbolen van geavanceerde technologieën, die de grenzen van menselijke creativiteit en verbeelding verkennen. Dit heeft geleid tot een breed scala aan interpretaties en herinterpretaties, waarbij elementen van sciencefiction, mythologie en historische intrige met elkaar worden verweven.

De populariteit van de Vimana in fictieve werken is niet te ontkennen. Films, boeken en televisieseries hebben deze oude vliegtuigen vaak gebruikt als centrale elementen in hun verhalen. Een voorbeeld hiervan is de film "The Mahabharata", waarin Vimana worden afgebeeld als majestueuze en krachtige voertuigen die door de lucht zweven. Deze visuele representaties zijn vaak spectaculair en dramatisch, waardoor ze een sterke impact hebben op het publiek. De combinatie van historische elementen met futuristische technologie helpt om een brug te slaan tussen het verleden en de toekomst, waardoor de Vimana een tijdloos symbool worden van menselijke aspiratie en ontdekking.

In de wereld van de literatuur zijn er talloze romans en verhalen die de Vimana als inspiratiebron gebruiken. Deze werken verkennen niet alleen hun mythische oorsprong, maar stellen ook vragen over technologie en vooruitgang. Auteurs spelen met het idee dat de Vimana misschien niet alleen een product van de verbeelding zijn, maar ook een weerspiegeling van verloren kennis en technologie uit een verre tijd. Dit heeft geleid tot speculaties over wat deze oude machines ons kunnen leren over de ontwikkeling van technologieën in onze moderne wereld.

Daarnaast blijft de academische gemeenschap de Vimana bestuderen vanuit verschillende perspectieven. Sommige onderzoekers onderzoeken de mogelijkheid dat de technologieën die in oude teksten worden beschreven, inzichten zouden kunnen bieden voor hedendaagse uitdagingen. In het bijzonder wordt er gekeken naar hoe deze oude beschrijvingen ons kunnen helpen bij het ontwikkelen van nieuwe vormen van transport en energiebronnen. Het idee dat we lessen uit het verleden kunnen toepassen op moderne kwesties zoals duurzaamheid en energie-efficiëntie, is een opwindend concept dat de verbeelding van wetenschappers prikkelt.

De Vimana zijn niet alleen objecten van studie; ze zijn ook symbolen van de menselijke zoektocht naar kennis en begrip. Het idee dat deze machines ooit hebben bestaan, roept vragen op over wat we echt weten over onze geschiedenis en de mogelijkheden van technologie. Zijn er verborgen waarheden die wachten om ontdekt te worden? Of zijn de Vimana slechts een product van mythe en fantasie? Deze vragen blijven onbeantwoord, maar ze stimuleren het debat en de nieuwsgierigheid.

In de populaire cultuur zijn de Vimana ook een symbool geworden van buitenaardse ontmoetingen. Sommige theorieën suggereren dat deze oude machines niet alleen door mensen zijn gemaakt, maar mogelijk ook door buitenaardse wezens zijn beïnvloed. Dit heeft geleid tot een groeiende subcultuur van mensen die geloven dat de Vimana bewijs zijn van een geavanceerde beschaving die ooit op aarde heeft bestaan of zelfs dat onze technologie is geïnspireerd door buitenaardse contacten. Deze speculaties zijn vaak het onderwerp van documentaires en populaire boeken, waardoor de Vimana een integraal onderdeel zijn geworden van de hedendaagse mythologie.

Samenvattend, de Vimana zijn een blijvende bron van fascinatie en inspiratie die de grenzen van wetenschap, mythologie en populaire cultuur overschrijden. Of ze nu worden gezien als bewijs van een verloren technologie of als fascinerende verhalen uit een rijke culturele geschiedenis, de Vimana blijven een intrigerend mysterie dat uitnodigt tot verder onderzoek en verkenning. Hun impact op de moderne wereld is onmiskenbaar, en hun verhaal zal waarschijnlijk blijven evolueren naarmate nieuwe generaties van kunstenaars en wetenschappers zich over deze oude machines buigen.

EINDBESLUIT

De Vimana, de mythische vliegende machines die in oude Indiase teksten worden beschreven, zijn meer dan slechts fantasieën of legendes. Ze zijn een fascinerend venster naar de rijke geschiedenis en cultuur van India, en ze bieden ons een unieke mogelijkheid om na te denken over de relatie tussen mythologie, technologie en wetenschap. In de eeuwenoude geschriften zoals de Mahabharata en de Ramayana worden Vimana vaak afgebeeld als geavanceerde voertuigen die niet alleen in staat zijn om door de lucht te reizen, maar ook krachtige wapens en wonderbaarlijke technologieën bevatten. Deze beschrijvingen roepen vragen op over de technologische vaardigheden en wetenschappelijke kennis van de oude Indiase beschaving.

De Vimana zijn bovendien een symbool van de menselijke verbeeldingskracht en de drang naar ontdekking. Terwijl we de teksten bestuderen, worden we geconfronteerd met de intrigerende mogelijkheid dat deze verhalen niet alleen fictie zijn, maar dat ze misschien zijn gebaseerd op werkelijke ervaringen of zelfs verloren technologieën. Dit roept de vraag op in hoeverre de oude Indiërs in staat waren tot innovaties die ons tot op de dag van vandaag blijven fascineren. De zoektocht naar de waarheid achter de Vimana kan ons niet alleen helpen om meer te leren over de geschiedenis van India, maar ook over de ontwikkeling van technologie door de tijd heen.

Bovendien kunnen de lessen die we uit de Vimana trekken, ons inzicht geven in onze eigen benadering van technologie in de moderne wereld. In een tijd waarin we geconfronteerd worden met zowel ongelooflijke vooruitgang als grote ethische dilemma's rond technologie, is het van cruciaal belang om de waarden en lessen van het verleden te heroverwegen. De Vimana herinneren ons eraan dat innovatie vaak voortkomt uit een combinatie van creativiteit, nieuwsgierigheid en een verlangen naar verbetering. Ze moedigen ons aan om verder te kijken dan de grenzen van onze huidige kennis en om te blijven dromen over wat mogelijk is.

Ten slotte zijn de Vimana niet alleen een fascinerend onderwerp van studie, maar ook een uitnodiging om onze verbeelding te gebruiken en de mysteries van de wereld om ons heen te verkennen. Terwijl we de verhalen en symboliek van deze oude machines blijven onderzoeken, kunnen ze ons inspireren om nieuwe ideeën te omarmen en de grenzen van onze eigen technologieën te verleggen. De Vimana zijn een krachtig voorbeeld van hoe mythologie en wetenschap hand in hand kunnen gaan, en ze bieden ons de kans om zowel de geschiedenis als de toekomst van menselijke creativiteit te heroverwegen.

{ PETER2011 }

16-04-2025 om 22:48 geschreven door peter  

An illustration of different tools and inventions.

Curiosmos.

Why Stone Tools Were Revolutionary

Unlike organic materials like wood or bone, stone tools endured the test of time, leaving behind artifacts that reveal key insights into the lives of early humans. The deliberate crafting of these tools, involving percussive blows to shape sharp edges, demonstrates advanced cognitive and motor skills.

• Fun Fact: Even animals like chimpanzees and crows use basic tools, but the manufacturing of Oldowan tools reflects a unique behavioral innovation among early hominins.

From Oldowan to Acheulean

The Oldowan tools paved the way for the Acheulean Industry, characterized by hand axes, cleavers, and knives. Acheulean tools, associated with Homo erectus, spread from Africa to Asia and Europe, enabling early humans to hunt, build shelters, and thrive in diverse environments. This era represents 99% of humanity’s technological history (Toth & Schick, 2014).

The invention of simple machines transformed how humans manipulated their environment, leading to some of the greatest engineering feats in history. These tools leveraged mechanical advantage to amplify force, making tasks easier and more efficient.

The Lever: An Ancient Power Tool

One of the earliest uses of the lever is evident in the shaduf, a water-lifting device invented in Mesopotamia around 3000 BC. Consisting of a long pole balanced on a pivot, the shaduf allowed farmers to irrigate their crops with minimal effort. Remarkably, it remains in use today in parts of Africa and Asia.

The Wheel: Rolling Into the Future

The wheel and axle mechanism originated in Mesopotamia, with the Sumerians initially using it for pottery around 3500 BC. This invention evolved into wheeled carts, revolutionizing transportation and trade. By enabling the movement of goods over long distances, the wheel played a crucial role in the development of early economies.

The Archimedes Screw: Innovation in Agriculture

Attributed to the Greek mathematician Archimedes, the Archimedes screw was a device designed to lift water for irrigation. Although similar mechanisms existed in Assyria and Egypt earlier, this invention became a cornerstone of ancient agricultural practices and is still used in some industries today.

Building the Impossible: Ramps and Pulleys

Ancient architects relied on ramps, levers, and pulleys to construct monumental structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza and the Colosseum in Rome. Archaeological evidence from the Hatnub quarry in Egypt suggests that ramps and pulleys were integral to hauling massive stone blocks, showcasing the ingenuity of ancient engineers.

The ability to navigate vast oceans and unknown territories was a defining moment in human history. Early navigation tools enabled trade, exploration, and cultural exchange, laying the foundation for global connectivity.

The Compass: Guiding the Way

Invented in China around 206 BC, the magnetic compass was initially used for divination. Over time, it became an essential tool for navigation, allowing sailors to traverse vast seas even when celestial objects were obscured. This innovation revolutionized exploration and expanded trade routes.

Sunstones: The Vikings’ Secret Weapon

According to Norse legend, Vikings used sunstones to locate the sun on cloudy days. Modern research confirms that birefringent crystals like calcite could polarize light, enabling accurate navigation without a magnetic compass. This method might explain how the Vikings conquered the North Atlantic’s treacherous waters.

Austronesian Seafaring

The Austronesians, masterful sailors from Southeast Asia, invented outrigger canoes and catamarans, enabling them to explore and settle the Pacific Islands. Their innovative vessels allowed them to travel vast distances, facilitating the spread of culture and trade across the region.

The development of writing was one of humanity’s most transformative achievements. Recording information allowed civilizations to preserve knowledge, govern societies, and develop literature.

Cuneiform: The First Writing System

The Sumerians pioneered cuneiform writing around 3100 BC. Initially used for accounting, it evolved into a versatile script capable of recording laws, religious texts, and epic poetry. The famous Sumerian poem Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta highlights the importance of writing as a tool for communication and storytelling.

Egyptian Hieroglyphics and Beyond

Inspired by cuneiform, the Egyptians developed hieroglyphics, a pictorial script used for monumental inscriptions and religious texts. Other civilizations, such as the Mesoamerican Olmecs, followed suit with their own writing systems, illustrating the universal need for recorded knowledge.

Timekeeping was essential for agriculture, governance, and religious practices. Ancient societies developed ingenious methods to track time, many of which laid the groundwork for modern clocks.

Sundials and Shadow Clocks

The Egyptians used shadow clocks and sundials as early as 3500 BC to divide the day into hours. These devices were not only practical but symbolized humanity’s growing understanding of celestial mechanics.

Water Clocks: Precision in Timekeeping

Known as clepsydrae, water clocks measured time based on the steady flow of water between vessels. The oldest known example, dating to Amenhotep III’s reign, exemplifies the advanced engineering of ancient Egypt. The Greeks later adapted water clocks for more complex uses, including Plato’s invention of the first alarm clock.

From the stone tools of early hominins to the sophisticated instruments of ancient engineers, these gadgets were more than functional—they were transformative. They enabled humans to conquer their environment, build civilizations, and explore the world. Even today, their influence persists, reminding us of the creativity and resilience of our ancestors.

Artifacts like the Antikythera Mechanism and the Baghdad Battery hint at the technological capabilities of ancient societies that were far ahead of their time. These inventions not only shaped history but continue to inspire innovation in the modern era.

• We published an earlier version of this article in 2024.

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16-04-2025 om 21:56 geschreven door peter  

The Six Mass Extinctions: A Scientific Exploration of Past and Present

Introduction

Throughout Earth's history, life has flourished and adapted in countless forms. However, this rich tapestry of biodiversity has been punctuated by significant events known as mass extinctions. A mass extinction is defined as a rapid decrease in the biodiversity on Earth, resulting in the extinction of a substantial number of species across various taxa. Scientists recognize six major mass extinctions, each with its unique causes and consequences. In this article, we will delve into the details of these six events, examining their timing, causes, effects on flora and fauna, future implications, and the possibility of other overlooked extinctions.

The Six Major Mass Extinctions

1. The Ordovician-Silurian Extinction: An In-Depth Analysis

1.1. Timing and Causes: The Ordovician-Silurian Extinction (approximately 443 million years ago)

The Ordovician-Silurian extinction event, which unfolded around 443 million years ago, stands as the second-largest mass extinction in Earth’s geological history. This event is noteworthy not only for the sheer number of species it affected but also for the significant transformations it catalyzed within marine ecosystems. The extinction is estimated to have eliminated approximately 85% of all marine species, profoundly reshaping the biodiversity of the planet.

The primary causes of this catastrophic event are attributed to drastic climate changes, which can be broken down into two major phenomena: glaciation and fluctuations in sea levels. The onset of glaciation resulted in a substantial drop in global temperatures, leading to a significant decline in sea levels. This decrease in sea levels exposed continental shelves and altered shallow marine habitats, creating inhospitable environments for many species. Following this period of glaciation, there was a rapid rise in sea levels due to melting ice, which further disrupted existing ecosystems. These dramatic shifts not only caused habitat loss but also affected the nutrient cycles and the availability of oxygen in marine environments, contributing to the widespread extinction of species.

1.2. Consequences for Flora and Fauna

The consequences of the Ordovician-Silurian extinction were profound and far-reaching, particularly for marine flora and fauna. Major groups such as trilobites, brachiopods, and graptolites experienced extensive losses, with entire families and genera disappearing from the fossil record. The trilobites, once one of the most prolific groups of marine arthropods, faced severe declines, while many brachiopod species were rendered extinct. Graptolites, key index fossils for dating geological strata, also suffered significant losses, with many species not surviving the transition into the Silurian period.

However, this extinction event also served as a catalyst for evolutionary innovation and diversification. In the aftermath of the extinction, ecological niches that were previously occupied became available, allowing for the emergence of new species and families. The recovery of marine ecosystems during the Silurian period was characterized by the diversification of life forms, including the rise of new types of fish and the establishment of coral reefs. This period also saw the emergence of early land plants, marking a significant transition in the evolution of life on Earth.

1. 3. The Impact on Flora and Fauna

The impact of the Ordovician-Silurian extinction extended beyond the immediate loss of species. The extinction event led to significant changes in the structure of marine ecosystems, fundamentally altering predator-prey relationships and community dynamics. With many established species gone, new ecological interactions emerged, allowing for the diversification of surviving groups. For example, the surviving fish species began to exploit new niches, leading to the evolution of more complex food webs.

The loss of biodiversity during this extinction also had lasting effects on the evolutionary trajectory of life on Earth. The extinction created opportunities for certain groups, such as jawed vertebrates and corals, to thrive and evolve into dominant forms in the following geological periods. This shift laid the groundwork for the development of more complex ecosystems that would eventually support terrestrial life.

1. 4. How Evolution Continued After the Extinction

Following the Ordovician-Silurian extinction, the evolutionary process took a dynamic turn. The Silurian period, which followed the extinction, was marked by a remarkable recovery and diversification of life. New species emerged, filling the ecological void left by the extinct species. Coral reefs began to develop, which provided essential habitats for various marine organisms, facilitating further evolutionary innovations.

The evolutionary adaptations that occurred during this time were significant. Organisms developed more complex body structures and behaviors, enabling them to exploit newly available resources and adapt to changing environmental conditions. This period also saw the rise of early land plants, which played a crucial role in transforming terrestrial ecosystems and eventually allowing for the colonization of land by other life forms.

In conclusion, the Ordovician-Silurian extinction event was a pivotal moment in Earth’s history, marked by dramatic climatic changes and massive biodiversity loss. While it had devastating consequences for many marine species, it also spurred an evolutionary response that led to increased diversity and complexity in the subsequent Silurian period and beyond. The legacy of this extinction continues to influence the trajectory of life on our planet today.

2. The Late Devonian Extinction (approximately 375 million years ago)

2. 1. Timing of the Extinction Events

The Late Devonian extinction, one of the five major extinction events in Earth's history, occurred approximately 375 million years ago and was not a single catastrophic event but rather a protracted series of extinction pulses that unfolded over several million years. This period was marked by dramatic fluctuations in biodiversity, with several distinct phases of extinction, often referred to as "extinction events." These pulses are thought to have occurred over a span of about 20 million years, with the most significant losses recorded during the Late Devonian, particularly around the Frasnian to Famennian stages.

During this time, the Earth was undergoing significant geological and climatic changes. The Devonian period itself was characterized by the proliferation of marine life, particularly in shallow seas. However, the end of this period would see dramatic shifts that would set the stage for one of the most critical transitions in the history of life on Earth.

Since we know that the late Devonian extinction was triggered by an overpopulation of plants which resulted in the decrees of levels of oxygen in seas got some of the marine life killed but did some of the land delving groups of animals also became extinct as a result of a plant overgrowth.

2. 2. Causes of the Extinction Events

The Late Devonian extinction has been attributed to a combination of interrelated factors that contributed to the decline of marine and terrestrial biodiversity. One of the primary causes identified is the fluctuation of sea levels. During this period, there were significant changes in the distribution of land and water, leading to the inundation of continental shelves and the resultant loss of habitats for numerous marine species.

Another critical factor was global cooling, which led to a drop in temperatures and altered climate patterns. This cooling could have disrupted existing ecosystems, placing additional stress on species already vulnerable to changing conditions. Furthermore, anoxic events, characterized by a lack of oxygen in ocean waters, played a pivotal role in the extinction process. These anoxic conditions were likely exacerbated by widespread algal blooms, which, while initially beneficial for some organisms, ultimately resulted in the depletion of oxygen in the water, creating a hostile environment for many marine species.

The interaction of these factors created a perfect storm, leading to widespread extinctions across various taxa, particularly in marine environments.

2. 3. Impact on Flora and Fauna

The consequences of the Late Devonian extinction were profound, particularly for marine ecosystems. It resulted in the extinction of numerous reef-building organisms, with stromatoporoids—coral-like creatures that played a crucial role in creating and maintaining reef structures—falling victim to the changing conditions. The loss of these organisms signified a drastic shift in marine biodiversity, altering the ecological landscape of the oceans.

Fish populations were not spared either, as many species, particularly placoderms, faced significant declines. These armored fish had been dominant during the Devonian, but their extinction paved the way for other groups to rise in prominence. The loss of such a substantial number of marine species had cascading effects throughout the food web, altering predator-prey dynamics and ecosystem stability.

On land, the extinction event also had significant implications for terrestrial flora. The Devonian period had seen substantial advancements in plant life, with the emergence of early vascular plants. However, the extinction event disrupted these advancements, although in the long term, it also laid the groundwork for the evolution of more complex terrestrial ecosystems. The survivors of this period, including early amphibians, began to exploit new niches, leading to a diversification of life forms that would ultimately shape future terrestrial ecosystems.

2. 4. Further Evolution Following the Extinction

Following the Late Devonian extinction, the evolution of life on Earth took a new trajectory. The extinction paved the way for the rise of new groups of organisms that would fill the ecological void left by those that had perished. In the wake of the extinction, early amphibians began to diversify, marking a significant transition from aquatic to terrestrial life. This shift was crucial for the colonization of land by vertebrates.

Furthermore, the recovery of marine ecosystems after the extinction led to the emergence of new reef-building organisms, including modern corals. This recovery phase saw the development of more complex and diverse ecosystems, which would eventually lead to the flourishing of life forms in subsequent geological periods.

On land, the diversification of plant life continued, laying the foundation for the eventual dominance of seed plants and forests in later periods. The Late Devonian extinction, therefore, while devastating in the short term, ultimately catalyzed significant evolutionary advancements that shaped the trajectory of life on Earth for millions of years to come.

In conclusion, the Late Devonian extinction was a complex interplay of environmental changes that had far-reaching consequences for both marine and terrestrial life. The recovery and evolution that followed this extinction event set the stage for future biodiversity, illustrating the resilience of life in the face of profound ecological challenges.

3. The Permian-Triassic Extinction (approximately 252 million years ago) A Comprehensive Overview

3. 1. Timing and Causes: 

The Permian-Triassic extinction, often dubbed "The Great Dying," marks a pivotal moment in Earth's history, occurring approximately 252 million years ago. This catastrophic event is distinguished as the most severe mass extinction in the geological timeline, erasing around 96% of all marine species and about 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species. The sheer scale of this extinction event has led scientists to extensively investigate its causes, which appear to be multifaceted.

One of the primary drivers identified is the series of massive volcanic eruptions in what is known as the Siberian Traps. These eruptions released enormous quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere. The release of CO2 contributed to global warming, while SO2 led to acid rain and subsequent ocean acidification. The destabilization of the climate would have triggered a cascade of environmental changes, including altered weather patterns and the disruption of ecosystems.

Additionally, it is believed that the warming oceans lost their ability to hold oxygen, creating anoxic (oxygen-deprived) conditions that were lethal to many marine organisms. This combination of volcanic activity, climate change, and oceanic disruption created a perfect storm, leading to a dramatic decline in biodiversity. The scale and speed of these changes were unprecedented, setting the stage for one of the most significant shifts in the history of life on Earth.

3. 2. Consequences for Flora and Fauna: 

The consequences of the Permian-Triassic extinction were profound and far-reaching, reshaping the planet's biological landscape. The immediate aftermath saw a drastic alteration in the composition of life. With the extinction of dominant species, ecological niches became available, allowing for the emergence of new groups of organisms. The extinction paved the way for the rise of the dinosaurs during the Mesozoic Era, which would dominate terrestrial ecosystems for millions of years.

In terms of flora, the extinction event marked a significant transition in plant life. The dominant seed ferns, which had flourished during the late Paleozoic, saw a severe decline. In their place, conifers and other gymnosperms began to rise to prominence. This shift not only changed the types of vegetation that thrived in various ecosystems but also altered the types of fauna that relied on these plants for food and habitat. The extinction event thus initiated a reorganization of both terrestrial and marine ecosystems, leading to a world that would be markedly different from the one that preceded it.

3. 3. Evolutionary Pathways Post-Extinction: 

In the wake of the Permian-Triassic extinction, the evolutionary pathways taken by surviving species were crucial in determining the trajectory of life on Earth. The dramatic loss of biodiversity created both opportunities and challenges for the organisms that remained. With many ecological niches vacant, evolutionary pressures shifted, allowing for rapid diversification among surviving species.

One of the most notable outcomes of this post-extinction recovery was the emergence of the archosaurs, a group that would include the ancestors of modern birds and crocodiles, as well as the dinosaurs. The Mesozoic Era, which followed the extinction, became a time of significant evolutionary experimentation, characterized by the development of various life forms, including the first mammals and flowering plants. This era was defined by a remarkable adaptive radiation, where various species evolved to exploit the newly available ecological niches.

The recovery process was not instantaneous; it took millions of years for ecosystems to stabilize and for biodiversity to rebound. However, this long-term recovery ultimately laid the groundwork for the modern ecosystems we observe today. The evolutionary legacy of the Permian-Triassic extinction is evident in the vast array of life forms that have since emerged, showcasing the resilience of life even in the face of catastrophic events.

3.4. Conclusion: 

The Permian-Triassic extinction stands as a stark reminder of the fragility and resilience of life on Earth. Occurring approximately 252 million years ago, this event was driven by a combination of volcanic activity and climate change, resulting in the most severe mass extinction in history. The loss of biodiversity had profound consequences for both flora and fauna, leading to the emergence of new groups and the reorganization of ecosystems. The evolutionary pathways forged in the aftermath of this extinction event continue to shape the biodiversity we observe today, illustrating the complex interplay between extinction, recovery, and evolution in the history of life on our planet.

4. The Triassic-Jurassic Extinction (approximately 201 million years ago)

4.1. Timing of the Extinction Event

The Triassic-Jurassic extinction event unfolded approximately 201 million years ago, marking a significant turning point in Earth’s biological history. This event is notable for the dramatic loss of biodiversity, with estimates suggesting that around 50% of all species on the planet went extinct. It is considered one of the five major extinction events in Earth's history, alongside the more famous Permian-Triassic extinction. The period leading up to this extinction was characterized by a complex interplay of geological and climatic changes. The Triassic period itself was a time of significant diversification, with many species evolving and thriving. However, by the end of this era, the stage was set for a catastrophic shift that would forever alter the course of life on Earth.

4. 2. Causes of the Extinction

The causes of the Triassic-Jurassic extinction are still a matter of scientific investigation and debate. However, several key factors have been proposed as significant contributors to this mass extinction. One of the primary drivers was extensive volcanic activity associated with the opening of the Atlantic Ocean. This volcanic activity was part of what is known as the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP), which released massive amounts of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. The emissions from these volcanoes likely led to severe climate change, resulting in global warming, acid rain, and disruptions to weather patterns.

In addition to volcanic activity, fluctuations in sea levels due to tectonic movements played a crucial role. Rising sea levels could have submerged coastal habitats, while falling sea levels would have exposed shallow marine environments, both of which would have devastated ecosystems. Moreover, there is evidence suggesting that asteroid impacts could have contributed to the environmental stresses during this period, although this hypothesis remains less certain compared to the volcanic activity theory. The combination of these factors created a harsh environment that many species could not withstand, leading to widespread extinction.

4. 3. Impact on Flora and Fauna

The consequences of the Triassic-Jurassic extinction were profound, particularly for flora and fauna. The extinction event dramatically reshaped ecosystems, paving the way for the emergence and dominance of new groups of organisms. Among the most significant outcomes was the rise of the dinosaurs, which would go on to dominate terrestrial ecosystems for the remainder of the Mesozoic Era. With many competitors eliminated, dinosaurs were able to diversify and fill ecological niches that had previously been occupied by a variety of species.

Additionally, the extinction event facilitated the diversification of mammals and reptiles. During the Triassic, mammals were small, nocturnal creatures living in the shadow of larger reptiles. However, with the extinction of many dominant species, mammals began to evolve and adapt more significantly, ultimately leading to the wide variety of mammals seen in later periods. The flora also underwent significant changes; many plant groups, including the dominance of gymnosperms, proliferated in the aftermath of the extinction. The reduced competition allowed these plants to spread and diversify, leading to new ecosystems that would support the thriving dinosaur population.

4. 4. Further Evolution after the Extinction

Following the Triassic-Jurassic extinction, the Mesozoic Era entered a new phase characterized by remarkable evolutionary developments. The Jurassic period, which followed the extinction, was marked by the reign of dinosaurs, which evolved into various forms, from the colossal sauropods to the agile theropods. This period saw the emergence of iconic species such as the Brachiosaurus and the Allosaurus, which adapted to various ecological niches and became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates.

Meanwhile, the evolutionary trajectory of mammals continued, albeit at a slower pace. Mammals remained relatively small and inconspicuous for much of the Jurassic, but this would set the stage for their eventual rise in the Cretaceous period. The extinction event also allowed for the evolution of new plant species, including early flowering plants, which would diversify and become more prevalent in the Cretaceous.

In summary, the Triassic-Jurassic extinction was a pivotal moment in Earth's history that reshaped the planet's biological landscape. The causes of this extinction are complex, involving volcanic activity, climate change, and possibly asteroid impacts. Its impact on flora and fauna was significant, leading to the rise of dinosaurs and the diversification of mammals. The further evolution post-extinction set the stage for the rich tapestry of life that would flourish in the Mesozoic Era and beyond.

5. The Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction (approximately 66 million years ago) A Pivotal Event in Earth’s History

5. 1. Timing of the Extinction

The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction event occurred approximately 66 million years ago, marking a significant boundary in Earth's geological history. This event is often referred to as the greatest mass extinction, as it led to the sudden and dramatic decline of diverse species, most notably the non-avian dinosaurs. The timing of this extinction coincides with significant geological and climatic changes that were already underway, but the K-Pg event itself acted as a catalyst for a profound shift in the Earth’s biological landscape.

5. 2. Causes of the Extinction

Multiple theories have been proposed regarding the precise causes of the K-Pg extinction, though two primary factors are most widely accepted: the impact of a massive asteroid and extensive volcanic activity. The asteroid, estimated to be about 10 kilometers in diameter, struck the Earth near present-day Chicxulub in Mexico. This impact released energy equivalent to billions of atomic bombs, causing immediate devastation through the formation of a massive crater and triggering catastrophic environmental changes.

In addition to the asteroid impact, the volcanic activity associated with the Deccan Traps in present-day India played a critical role. These extensive volcanic eruptions released vast amounts of volcanic gases, including sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide, into the atmosphere. This led to acid rain, global cooling, and significant shifts in climate, further exacerbating the stress on ecosystems already impacted by the asteroid’s fallout. Together, these two forces created a "nuclear winter" effect, drastically reducing sunlight penetration and disrupting photosynthesis, which was vital for plant life and, by extension, the entire food chain.

5. 3. Impact on Flora and Fauna

The consequences of the K-Pg extinction were catastrophic for both flora and fauna. Approximately 75% of all species on Earth became extinct during this event, including the dominant non-avian dinosaurs, ammonites, and many marine reptiles. The extinction of these species was not merely a loss of individual organisms; it marked a profound shift in the Earth's biodiversity.

Flora, too, suffered tremendously. The destruction of plant life, particularly the dominant angiosperms (flowering plants), led to a significant decline in plant diversity. With the loss of primary producers, herbivores struggled to find food, which in turn affected the carnivores that preyed upon them. The collapse of these interconnected ecosystems created a vacuum in the chain of life, leading to a dramatic reduction in biodiversity.

However, this catastrophic event also set the stage for the resurgence and diversification of mammals. The extinction of dinosaurs and other dominant species opened ecological niches that had been previously occupied. With the disappearance of these large reptiles, mammals began to evolve rapidly, adapting to various environments and filling roles that had been vacated. This eventual diversification would lead to the rise of modern mammals, paving the way for the emergence of primates and eventually humans.

5. 4. Evolutionary Aftermath

In the aftermath of the K-Pg extinction, the process of evolution took a new trajectory. With the vast majority of species gone, the surviving organisms had the opportunity to exploit the ecological niches left empty. Mammals, which had previously been small and largely nocturnal, began to evolve into larger and more diverse forms. This period, known as the Paleogene, saw the rise of many modern groups of mammals, including primates, cetaceans, and even the ancestors of modern horses and elephants.

The evolutionary pressure created by the K-Pg event also led to innovations in reproductive strategies, social behavior, and adaptations to diverse habitats. The flowering plants, which had survived the extinction event, began to diversify as well, leading to a rich array of plant species that would support the herbivorous mammals that were evolving at the same time.

The K-Pg extinction can be viewed as a turning point in the history of life on Earth. It was a stark reminder of the fragility of ecosystems and the interconnectedness of life forms. The survivors of this extinction event set the stage for a new era of biodiversity, which would eventually lead to the complex ecosystems we see today.

5. 5. Conclusion

In summary, the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event, occurring around 66 million years ago, was a pivotal moment in Earth’s history, characterized by massive ecological upheaval due to an asteroid impact and volcanic activity. The resulting extinction of a significant percentage of species had profound effects on flora and fauna, reshaping the evolutionary trajectory of life on Earth. The aftermath of this event illustrates both the destructive power of natural forces and the resilience of life, as new species emerged to fill the void left by those that perished.

6. The Holocene Extinction (present day) An Ongoing Crisis

6. 1. When Did the Extinction Events Occur?

The Holocene extinction, often referred to as the sixth mass extinction, is currently unfolding, having begun approximately 10,000 years ago with the advent of human civilization. However, it has gained significant acceleration since the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century. The effects of human activity on biodiversity have become increasingly pronounced in the 20th and 21st centuries, as urbanization, industrialization, and globalization have contributed to unprecedented levels of species loss. Unlike previous mass extinctions, which were often triggered by natural events such as volcanic eruptions or asteroid impacts, the Holocene extinction is predominantly driven by anthropogenic factors.

As we continue into the 21st century, the pace of extinction has intensified alarmingly. Estimates indicate that species are currently disappearing at a rate 100 to 1,000 times faster than the natural background rate. This alarming trend is projected to escalate further, especially as human populations continue to grow and exert pressure on natural ecosystems.

6. 2. What Caused This Extinction?

The causes of the Holocene extinction are multifaceted and deeply intertwined with human actions. The primary drivers include:

• Habitat Destruction: The conversion of natural habitats into agricultural lands, urban areas, and infrastructure has led to significant fragmentation and loss of ecosystems. Deforestation, wetland drainage, and the destruction of grasslands are just a few examples of how human activity has irreparably altered landscapes.

• Pollution: Chemicals, plastics, and other pollutants have contaminated air, water, and soil, posing dire threats to many species. For instance, pesticides harm non-target species, while plastic waste in oceans endangers marine life through ingestion and entanglement.

• Climate Change: The rapid changes in climate caused by greenhouse gas emissions are shifting habitats and altering weather patterns. Species that cannot adapt quickly enough or migrate to suitable environments face extinction. Coral reefs, often referred to as the "rainforests of the sea," are particularly vulnerable, with rising ocean temperatures leading to widespread bleaching events.

• Overexploitation of Resources: Overfishing, poaching, and unsustainable hunting practices have drastically reduced populations of various species, some to the brink of extinction. Many iconic species, such as elephants and rhinos, face extreme pressure from illegal wildlife trade.

• Invasive Species: The introduction of non-native species into ecosystems has led to the decline or extinction of indigenous species. Invasive species often outcompete native flora and fauna for resources, disrupt local food webs, and introduce diseases.

These fa Ictors collectively represent a complex web of challenges that are driving the ongoing biodiversity crisis, with humans at the center of the problem.

6. 3. What Was/Is the Impact on Flora and Fauna?

The consequences of the Holocene extinction for both flora and fauna are dire and far-reaching. It is estimated that up to 1 million species are at risk of extinction in the coming decades, a scenario that would have catastrophic implications for global biodiversity and ecosystem services. The loss of species disrupts ecological balance and diminishes the resilience of ecosystems, making them less capable of withstanding environmental changes and stressors.

For flora, the decline of pollinators, such as bees and butterflies, threatens the reproduction of many flowering plants, which are essential for food production and ecosystem health. The extinction of plant species can lead to the loss of entire habitats, affecting numerous animal species that depend on those plants for food and shelter.

For fauna, the extinction of keystone species—organisms that play a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecosystem—can trigger cascading effects. For example, the decline of apex predators can lead to an overpopulation of herbivores, which in turn can decimate vegetation and disrupt entire ecosystems. The loss of biodiversity also limits the genetic variability necessary for species to adapt to changing environments, further exacerbating their vulnerability.

6. 4. How Did Further Evolution Occur?

The ongoing Holocene extinction presents a paradox within the context of evolution. While extinction events typically pave the way for new species to emerge and adapt, the rapid loss of biodiversity today is occurring at a pace that outstrips the ability of species to evolve. Natural selection requires time, and the accelerated rate of extinction hinders the evolutionary processes that could yield resilient species in the future.

However, some species may adapt to changing conditions, leading to microevolutionary changes. For instance, certain plants and animals are developing new traits that allow them to survive in altered environments or cope with human-induced pressures. Urban wildlife, such as raccoons and pigeons, are adapting to life in cities, showcasing remarkable behavioral changes.

Nonetheless, the overall trajectory of biodiversity loss threatens the rich tapestry of life on Earth. The extinction of so many species erodes the genetic diversity that is crucial for ecosystems to thrive. As human activities continue to shape the planet, it becomes imperative to take action to mitigate these impacts, conserve remaining species, and foster a more sustainable coexistence with nature.

In conclusion, the Holocene extinction represents a critical juncture in Earth's history, driven by human actions that have led to unprecedented rates of species loss. The need for immediate and concerted conservation efforts has never been more urgent, as the fate of countless species—and the health of our planet—hangs in the balance.

7. Future Perspectives and Overlooked Extinctions

7. 1. Future Perspectives

The current trajectory of biodiversity loss indicates that we are at a critical juncture in environmental history. If the current trends of habitat destruction, climate change, and pollution persist, we may experience an alarming acceleration in species extinction rates. This situation is dire, as the loss of biodiversity can destabilize ecosystems, diminish natural resources, and ultimately impact human well-being. Conservation efforts have never been more crucial in mitigating these adverse effects. To combat this crisis, comprehensive strategies such as habitat restoration, legal protections for endangered species, and sustainable resource management must be prioritized. Habitat restoration involves rehabilitating degraded ecosystems to restore their ecological functions and biodiversity. Legal protections can help safeguard threatened species from poaching and habitat encroachment, while sustainable resource management ensures that natural resources are used in a manner that does not compromise the environment for future generations. Only through concerted global efforts can we hope to slow down or even reverse some of the biodiversity loss that threatens our planet.

7.2. Overlooked Extinctions

In addition to the six major mass extinctions that are widely recognized, there may be numerous additional extinction events that are less documented and studied. For example, local extinctions—where species disappear from a specific area—may not garner the same level of attention as global events, yet they can have profound impacts on local ecosystems. Moreover, the extinction of lesser-known species, such as certain insects or plants, can lead to significant ecological consequences, disrupting food webs and ecosystem services. The loss of these species often goes unnoticed, complicating our overall understanding of biodiversity loss and its implications. By expanding our focus beyond the well-known extinctions to include these overlooked events, we can gain a more comprehensive view of the current biodiversity crisis and the urgent need for effective conservation measures.

Conclusion

The study of mass extinctions is not merely an academic exercise; it serves as a crucial lens through which we can understand the resilience and vulnerability of life on Earth. Each of the six major mass extinction events—ranging from the Ordovician-Silurian extinction to the Cretaceous-Paleogene event—has profoundly influenced the trajectory of biodiversity, ushering in the rise and fall of countless species. These events reveal patterns of ecological disruption, evolutionary responses, and the long-term consequences of environmental changes. As we navigate the complexities of the ongoing Holocene extinction, it becomes imperative to draw lessons from these historical precedents and implement proactive measures to safeguard the biodiversity that remains.

Historically, mass extinctions have often been triggered by significant environmental upheavals, such as volcanic eruptions, climate change, and asteroid impacts. For instance, the Permian-Triassic extinction, which occurred approximately 252 million years ago, is estimated to have wiped out nearly 90% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrates. This event serves as a stark reminder of the fragility of ecosystems when confronted with rapid and extreme changes. Understanding the factors that contributed to these extinctions allows us to identify contemporary threats, such as habitat loss, pollution, climate change, and invasive species, that are currently driving species to extinction at an unprecedented rate.

The current Holocene extinction—often described as the sixth mass extinction—highlights the impact of human activity on the natural world. According to various studies, species are disappearing at a rate 100 to 1,000 times faster than the natural background rate of extinction (Pimm et al., 2014). This alarming trend underscores the urgency of our situation and the need for immediate action. By learning from the past, we can better understand how to mitigate these threats and foster resilience in ecosystems.

Preserving biodiversity is not merely an ecological concern; it is also vital for human well-being. Biodiverse ecosystems provide essential services, including clean air and water, pollination of crops, and climate regulation. The loss of biodiversity can lead to the destabilization of these systems, ultimately affecting food security and public health. Therefore, our stewardship of the Earth must encompass not only conservation efforts but also sustainable practices that promote coexistence with nature.

In response to the challenges posed by the ongoing extinction crisis, various strategies have been proposed, including the establishment of protected areas, restoration of degraded habitats, and the implementation of policies that address climate change and pollution. Engaging local communities in conservation efforts is also critical, as local knowledge and stewardship can significantly enhance biodiversity preservation.

Moreover, education and awareness-raising initiatives are essential for fostering a culture of conservation. By informing the public about the importance of biodiversity and the consequences of its loss, we can inspire collective action and drive policy changes that prioritize ecological health.

In conclusion, the legacy of past mass extinctions serves as both a warning and a guide for our future stewardship of the Earth. As we confront the challenges of the Holocene extinction, it is crucial to recognize and mitigate the threats facing flora and fauna today. The future of our planet's biodiversity hinges on our willingness to learn from history and take meaningful action to preserve the rich tapestry of life that still exists.

References

1. Pimm, S. L., Jenkins, C. N., Abadi, F., & Moore, J. L. (2014). The biodiversity crisis: Losing the common and the rare. Science, 343(6171), 1241-1244.
2. Erwin, D. H. (2009). Climate as a driver of evolutionary change. Current Biology, 19(18), R779-R786.
3. Barnosky, A. D., Matzke, N., Tomiya, S., et al. (2011). Has the Earth’s sixth mass extinction already arrived? Nature, 471(7336), 51-57.
4. Ceballos, G., Ehrlich, P. R., & Dirzo, R. (2017). Biological annihilation via the ongoing sixth mass extinction signaled by vertebrate population losses and declines. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(30), E6089-E6096.
5. Venter, O., Sanderson, E. W., Magrach, A., et al. (2016). Estimating the size of the global conservation area. Nature, 537(7618), 145-149.
6. Sala, O. E., et al. (2000). Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science, 287(5459), 1770-1774.
7. Hooper, D. U., et al. (2005). Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: A consensus of current knowledge. Ecological Monographs, 75(1), 3-35.
8. McKinney, M. L., & Lockwood, J. L. (1999). Biotic homogenization: A few winners replacing many losers in the next mass extinction. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 14(11), 450-453.
9. Thomas, C. D., et al. (2004). Extinction risk from climate change. Nature, 427(6970), 145-148.
10. IPBES. (2019). Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.

{ PETER2011 }

15-04-2025 om 18:22 geschreven door peter  

The Lost labyrinth of Egypt

According to his account, the labyrinth was built as a joint burial site for the kings of the 12th Dynasty — possibly during the reign of Amenemhat III, around 1800 BCE. Other ancient writers such as Strabo and Pliny the Elder also referenced the site, repeating similar stories of an awe-inspiring subterranean complex.

Herdodotus wrote: “Though the pyramids beggar description and each one of them is a match for many great monuments built by Greeks, this maze surpasses even the pyramids. [4] It has twelve roofed courts with doors facing each other: six face north and six south, in two continuous lines, all within one outer wall. There are also double sets of chambers, three thousand altogether, fifteen hundred above and the same number under ground.”

Key details from Herodotus’s account include:

• 3,000 chambers, half underground

• Enormous stone walls and ceilings

• Sacred crocodile enclosures nearby

• Proximity to pyramids at Hawara

Yet despite the vivid descriptions, no structure of this scale has ever been conclusively found.

Clues Pointing to Hawara and the Faiyum Depression

Many modern researchers believe that the lost labyrinth of Egypt may have been located near the pyramid of Amenemhat III at Hawara, south of modern Cairo. This site has yielded artifacts and architectural ruins, including large stone blocks and a complex layout that could support Herodotus’s story.

In the 19th century, Sir Flinders Petrie, a pioneering British Egyptologist, excavated the area. He discovered remnants of monumental architecture near Hawara but concluded that the lost labyrinth of Egypt had been dismantled in antiquity, possibly by later rulers scavenging stone.

In recent years, efforts have intensified to examine the site with more advanced methods:

• In 2008, the Mataha Expedition, supported by the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities and the University of Ghent, conducted a ground-penetrating radar survey of the area near Hawara.

• Their results showed anomalous subsurface structures beneath the sand — massive rectangular patterns that could represent walls, chambers, or foundations.

The findings were never fully published in mainstream academic channels, and the Egyptian authorities have restricted further access to the area. Many people have actually accused several individuals linked to the ministry of antiquities of Egypt of purposely hiding certain regions or places from research. If the lost labyrinth of Egypt does not exist, then why not let people prove it does not exist? It makes no sense. Does it?

Now… this lack of transparency has only deepened the mystery — and fueled theories that the lost labyrinth of Egypt may still be hiding in plain sight. Is this just a conspiracy theory? A wild chase? Or something entirely else… I guess time will only tell.

Why the Lost Labyrinth of Egypt Still Captures Global Imagination

Unlike many ancient myths, Herodotus’s account is not the only mention of the labyrinth — and that’s what makes it harder to dismiss. Classical authors repeatedly referenced a massive structure in the same region, suggesting it was not a fabrication but perhaps a forgotten casualty of history.

So why hasn’t it been found? Or confirmed? There is evidence of its existence.

Several factors complicate the search for the lost labyrinth of Egypt:

• The Faiyum region has changed drastically over thousands of years, with flooding, shifting landscapes, and ancient quarrying operations.

• Politics, restricted funding, and modern development have limited archaeological efforts.

• The site near Hawara has been looted, damaged, and partly buried under silt from the Nile.

Still, the possibility remains that deeper excavation — or even satellite imaging — could one day confirm the existence of underground structures that match Herodotus’s descriptions.

If the labyrinth truly exists beneath the sands of Egypt, it would be among the greatest archaeological discoveries of all time. Not just because of its size, but because it might contain undisturbed records, hieroglyphs, or tombs from a period of Egyptian history that still holds many gaps.

The legend of the lost labyrinth of Egypt continues to attract archaeologists, fringe theorists, and independent researchers alike — not because it’s a myth, but because it might still be real. And to be honest, if we have learned anything from the past decade of explorations in Egypt, there are many things waiting to be discovered, lying hidden, in silence, for their true beauty to be brought back to the world.

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13-04-2025 om 20:28 geschreven door peter  

Illustration of Baghdad Batteries producing sparks.

Credit: Curiosmos.

What the Baghdad Battery Looks Like

The object was first described in 1939 by Wilhelm König, then director of the National Museum of Iraq. It had been found years earlier at Khujut Rabu, a Parthian-era site dating back to between 250 BCE and 250 CE. 

1. A small ceramic jar

2. A rolled copper cylinder inserted inside

1. A central iron rod, isolated by asphalt

2. Residue that could indicate an acidic liquid, such as vinegar or fermented grape juice

König was struck by the object’s similarity to modern galvanic cells, which can generate a small electrical current when filled with an acidic electrolyte. He proposed something radical: that this wasn’t storage or ritual ware — it was an ancient battery.

Subsequent reconstructions of the Baghdad Battery have proven the concept. When built using comparable materials, and filled with acidic liquids, the device produces between 0.5 and 1.5 volts — enough to cause a tingle or power a very small device.

But here’s where the mystery deepens.

There is no written record of the battery’s function. No accompanying tools. No diagrams. No mention of electricity in Parthian texts. Just the artifact itself — and the implications it suggests, without ever confirming them. But here is another great point I would like to make: there are also no blueprints or descriptions of the construction of the Great Pyramids. There are no markings that suggest the Egyptian pyramids were tombs. Yet most experts in the field undoubtedly think so. So a lack of written documentation or texts does not point to one way or the other.

Could Ancient People Have Used Electricity Without Understanding It?

The central debate is not whether the Baghdad Battery can function as a battery. It can — that’s been proven. The real question is whether it was ever intended to.

One theory suggests the batteries were used for electroplating — depositing a layer of metal like gold or silver onto another object. This process requires a direct current and acidic solution, which the Baghdad Battery could theoretically provide. Experiments have shown this is technically feasible, though extremely slow and inefficient.

Another idea is that it may have been used in ritual settings — to deliver a mild shock as a religious or symbolic experience. The surprise or sensation might have been interpreted as divine or mystical.

But these remain speculative. There is no direct evidence of electroplated objects from the same region and period. Nor are there any references to electroshock rituals in Parthian religious texts.

Skeptics argue that the Baghdad Battery is more likely a coincidence of form and function — a storage vessel, perhaps used for holding scrolls, sacred oil, or medicinal compounds. The presence of metal and organic residue may simply reflect non-electrical uses.

Yet that explanation, while conservative, doesn’t fully settle the question. If it was just a container, why was it engineered so precisely, with metal components that — accidentally or not — mirror modern battery design? If it were really a breakthrough technology from the past, why wasn’t it replicated in much greater numbers? Why aren’t we digging up hundreds of these? You would assume that word of such a technology would have spread rapidly across the ancient world, meaning that we would be finding many similar items all across the wide region.

The Baghdad Battery’s Enduring Mystery

The Baghdad Battery has become more than an object. I kind of see it like a case study in how we interpret the past. Because it is not the only such artifact we have discovered. We have found many artifacts of the ancient world that defy explanation, and one example of that is the Antikythera Mechanism. Oh and by the way, we also only found ONE Antikythera Mechanism. Just like with the Baghdad Battteries.

When we encounter ancient technologies that resemble modern tools, we are faced with a difficult choice: assume coincidence, or entertain the possibility that ancient civilizations experimented with principles they may not have fully understood. There’s of course that it was aliens theory, but I highly doubt aliens would have given such a lousy blueprint for a battery, right?

Having that said, there are many other examples of artifacts that sometimes we refer to to as out-of-place artifacts, including stones or ancient drilled cores, and to be honest, these raise similar questions about what knowledge may have existed — and what was lost. I firmly believe that a lot of our history is still hidden from sight. And when I say that, I do not mean Aliens. I just think that there are many secrets of our ancient past waiting to be discovered.

However, I do believe that if the Baghdad Battery were real, then it would challenge the narrative that human technological advancement has always moved in a straight line. As I have written in previous articles, I have said that history is like a puzzle, and we are far from completing it. I think that history is full of gaps, and sometimes the objects that survive don’t tell the whole story. These objects, we could argue, are just a small puzzle of a much bigger story.

Today, the battery remains on display in museums, including reconstructions in institutions like the Museum of the History of Science in Oxford. It continues to feature in documentaries, academic debates, and speculative fiction. But most of all, it continues to inspire the same question Wilhelm König asked nearly a century ago: What if? What if there is more to this artifact than meets the eye? What if ancient civilizations were far more advanced than we credit them for? 

I mean, look at Göbekli Tepe. As I have written previously, this site literally breaks history and the historical timeline we have been taught in school.

Without making bold claims or unsupported leaps, I can say this: the Baghdad Battery is an object whose purpose has not been fully explained. It exists, it functions, and it refuses to be forgotten. What’s more, it tells us that there are things out there that are far from ordinary. There are artifacts from the ancient past that still await discovery. Our history is far from being understood, and I guess that is the beauty of it. The more we dig, the more we find. The more questions we ask, the fewer answers we provide. Oh, how I love history.

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13-04-2025 om 18:42 geschreven door peter