UFO'S of UAP'S, ASTRONOMIE, RUIMTEVAART, ARCHEOLOGIE, OUDHEIDKUNDE, SF-SNUFJES EN ANDERE ESOTERISCHE WETENSCHAPPEN

Genetic studies of human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) show that all present-day non-Africans belong to two basal mtDNA haplogroups (hgs), M and N [10]. The time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) of each of these two clades has been estimated independently at around 50,000 years ago (50 ka) (95% confidence interval [CI], 53–46 ka) and 59 ka (95% CI, 64–54 ka), respectively [11]. However, whereas present-day Asians, Australasians, and Native Americans carry both M and N mtDNA hgs, modern individuals with European ancestry lack almost completely lineages of the M clade [12]. The different spatial distributions and TMRCA estimates of these two ancestral clades have been interpreted as evidence of an early spread of modern humans carrying hg M into Asia, perhaps via a southern route, followed by a later non-African diffusion of the N clade, perhaps via a northern route [7]. However, an alternative model proposes a rapid and single dispersal across Eurasia, with Asia being reached first, whereas Western Eurasia would have been settled only after a hiatus, during which hg M was lost [4].

Little is known about the genetic makeup of the first European hunter-gatherers, who likely arrived ∼45 ka [13], or about the subsequent population dynamics during the nearly 40,000 years spanning from the Late Pleistocene to the Neolithic transition [14]. Here, we reconstructed 35 complete or nearly complete mtDNAs (from 11× to 1,860× average coverage) of ancient modern human individuals from Italy, Germany, Belgium, France, Czech Republic, and Romania, spanning in age from 35 to 7 ka (Figure 1; Table S1). Hybridization capture of mtDNA in combination with high-throughput sequencing technologies [15] allowed us to evaluate typical DNA damage patterns and average fragment length [16] as criteria for authentication of ancient DNA (Supplemental Experimental Procedures). Both features were taken into account in an iterative probabilistic approach [17] that jointly estimates present-day human contamination and reconstructs mtDNA sequences (Table S2). Combining 311 modern and 66 ancient dated worldwide mtDNA genomes (both new and from the literature; Table S3), we used Bayesian phylogenetic methods [18] to estimate the mutation rate and hg coalescence times. Further, we combined our 35 new mtDNA genomes with 20 previously published ancient European mtDNAs for a total of 55 pre-Neolithic sequences (Table S4) and explicitly tested scenarios of the early population history of Europe using coalescent demographic modeling paired with approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) [19] (Supplemental Experimental Procedures).

Hg assignment of the authenticated mtDNAs confirmed that the vast majority of Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene individuals belonged to the U lineage, which is a subgroup of the N clade [20] (Figures 2 and S1). We also found a basal U lineage that had no derived position leading to known sub-hgs in a 33,000-year-old Romanian individual. Surprisingly, three hunter-gatherers from Belgium and France dating to between 35 and 28 ka carried mtDNA hg M, today found predominantly in Asia, Australasia, and the Americas, although it is almost absent in extant populations with European ancestry [12].

We used 66 ancient dated mtDNAs as tip calibration points in BEAST v1.8.1 [18] in combination with 311 modern worldwide mtDNA sequences to reduce the possible impact of sample biases (Table S3 and Supplemental Experimental Procedures) in estimating the mtDNA mutation rate and hg M and N divergence times. Strict and uncorrelated lognormal relaxed clocks were tested, under both a constant size and a Bayesian skyline tree prior. The four analyses returned mtDNA mutation rates (Table 1) consistent with previously published rates using similar methodology [21, 22]. The Bayesian skyline, in combination with strict rate variation among branches, performed best according to stepping-stone and path sampling methods [23] and highest effective sample size (ESS) values, giving a best estimate of the mutation rate of 2.74 × 10⁻⁸ (95% highest posterior density [HPD], 2.44–3.01 × 10⁻⁸) mutation/site/year. This model allowed us to refine time estimates for the TMRCA of the basal non-African clades M and N of circa 49 ka (95% HPD, 54.8–43.6 ka) and 51 ka (95% HPD, 55.1–46.9 ka), respectively (Table 1; Figure 2; Supplemental Experimental Procedures).

Table 1Haplogroup Divergence Times and mtDNA Mutation Rate
Tree Prior	Clock	Statistic	Divergence Time		Clock Rate Whole mtDNA	Log Marginal Likelihood
Tree Prior	Clock	Statistic	TMRCA hg M	TMRCA hg N	Clock Rate Whole mtDNA	Stepping-Stone Sampling	Path Sampling
Constant	strict	mean	58,869	57,482	2.62 × 10⁻⁸	−48,759	−48,754
		median	58,578	57,181	2.62 × 10⁻⁸
		95% HPD	68,163–50,380	64,363–51,387	2.30–2.93 × 10⁻⁸
		ESS	585	445	651
Constant	relaxed	mean	58,961	58,531	2.67 × 10⁻⁸	−48,755	−48,751
		median	58,507	58,207	2.67 × 10⁻⁸
		95% HPD	70,389–49,125	66,398–51,664	2.30–3.04 × 10⁻⁸
		ESS	354	416	431
Skyline	strict	mean	49,106	50,562	2.74 × 10⁻⁸	−48,577	−48,571
		median	48,837	50,317	2.74 × 10⁻⁸
		95% HPD	54,780–43,598	55,138–46,892	2.44–3.01 × 10⁻⁸
		ESS	741	799	863
Skyline	relaxed	mean	48,005	50,179	2.77 × 10⁻⁸	−48,550	−48,546
		median	47,695	50,021	2.77 × 10⁻⁸
		95% HPD	53,917–43,054	54,189–46,483	2.47–3.07 × 10⁻⁸
		ESS	251	285	348

The values reported are obtained in BEAST [18] using 377 worldwide mtDNAs, 66 of which come from ancient dated human remains. A Bayesian skyline tree prior in combination with strict rate variation between branches performed better than the other three tested models according to higher log marginal likelihood estimates (compared to the constant tree prior models) and effective sample size (ESS) values. HPD, highest posterior density. See also Table S3 and the Supplemental Experimental Procedures.

The observed mtDNA hg variation through time, including the apparent loss of hg M in Europe, suggests a genetic bottleneck that may have been influenced by climatic events (Figure 3). This period of European prehistory was accompanied by severe climatic fluctuations, such as the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 25 to 19.5 ka) and, at the end of the Pleistocene, the Bølling-Allerød interstadial followed by the stadial Younger Dryas—a period we refer to as the Late Glacial (14.5 to 11.5 ka) [24, 25]. These climatic changes have been proposed as a driver of the range contraction to refugia in many species [26], including modern humans, for whom there is absence of evidence of northwestern European occupation during the LGM [25, 27]. We used coalescent modeling paired with ABC [19] to test a range of explicit models of European hunter-gatherer demography (Figure S2; Table S6), using the complete set of 55 pre-Neolithic ancient mtDNA genomes (Table S4). The best-fitting model (Figure 3 and 2b inFigure S2) strongly supports maternal population continuity through the LGM, albeit as a single genetic bottleneck, before being replaced by a new incoming population at the onset of the Late Glacial 14.5 ka (model posterior probability,P_2b = 0.807). Based on the estimated parameter values of this model (Table S5), we infer that this surviving population diverged from the ancestral one around 29 ka (95% HPD, 36–25 ka), prior to the beginning of the LGM.

The new hunter-gatherer mtDNA genomes reported here approximately triple the available sequences from pre-Neolithic Europe. One novel finding, that three out of 18 European pre-LGM hunter-gatherers carry a previously undescribed basal mtDNA lineage M (Figure 1A), has important implications for the timing of the dispersal of modern humans into Eurasia. Excluding a ∼40,000-year-old Romanian individual known not to have contributed notably to the modern European gene pool [28], our BEAST analyses give a TMRCA for clades M and N from 44 to 55 ka, respectively. Our estimated dates, together with the oldest accepted archeological evidence for the presence of early modern humans in Australia and Europe (both dated to at least 45 ka [13, 29]), are consistent with a model of a single, late, and therefore rapid dispersal of a source population containing both M and N hgs, which contributed all the mitochondrial diversity of present-day non-Africans (cf. [7]). Human individuals whose ancestries trace back to potential earlier expansion(s) outside Africa [30, 31] are thus unlikely to have left any surviving mtDNA descendants.

Thumbnail image of Figure 1. Opens large image

Figure 1

Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene Archeological Sites and Hunter-Gatherer mtDNA Haplogroups

(A) Pre-LGM dispersal of non-African populations, carrying both M and N lineages (hgs R, U, U5, and U2′3′4′7′8′9 belong to the N clade, distinct from the M clade).

(B) Post-LGM re-expansion in Europe while ice sheets retracted.

Figure 2

Maximum Parsimony Tree of Present-Day Human and 55 Pre-Neolithic mtDNA Genomes

Pre-LGM samples are shown in blue, Post-LGM in green, Late Glacial in magenta, Holocene hunter-gatherers in red, and present-day individuals in black print. Average values of ¹⁴C dates are reported next to each specimen when available. Red arrows indicate divergence times of M and N clades. Hg M is almost absent in present-day individuals with European ancestry. Oase1 represents a pre-N lineage. The tree is rooted with one Neanderthal and 16 deeply divergent African mtDNAs (not shown). See also Figure S1 and the Supplemental Experimental Procedures.

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Figure 3

Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene Climatic Fluctuations and European Hunter-Gatherer Demography

On the left is the NGRIP δ¹⁸O climate record, and on the right is an illustration of the best-supported demographic model (2b inFigure S2). Each colored point gives the mtDNA hg of the 55 dated pre-Neolithic individuals used in the coalescent modeling analysis. West-East site locations for each sample are approximated. See also Figure S2, Table S4, and the Supplemental Experimental Procedures.

Phylogeographic inference based solely on mtDNA has limitations [2], but information from single loci can provide meaningful constraints on models of human prehistory. In particular, the fact that hg M has never previously been found in Europe is generally interpreted as an important limitation for the proposed scenarios of non-African population dispersals [4, 7]. According to the most popular model [4], an early expansion occurred before the M and N diversification with a subsequent loss of M in only the population ancestral to Europeans. Our evidence for the existence of hg M in Late Pleistocene Europe revises this scenario. It suggests that the loss of hg M may be due to population dynamics that occurred later within Europe itself. The expansion either occurred before the diversification of M and N, with subsequent migration bringing both lineages into Europe, or the dispersal was later, occurring after their TMRCAs. Contrary to recent findings [11], though similar to a previous study [32], our two TMRCAs are almost identically dated, suggesting a single major dispersal after 55 ka for all non-African populations, including Europe. The genetic evidence of pre-LGM hg M indicates that this lineage reached Western Europe by at least 35 ka (GoyetQ116-1), either alongside the first arrival of N or later. The reconstructed phylogeny (Figure 2) with both basal N and M lineages in Late Pleistocene Europe possibly mirrors the inferred back migration into Africa, which has been suggested by the existence of hgs U6 and M1 in modern-day North Africans [33]. Therefore, the major modern human dispersal described here after 55 ka might have affected not only non-Africans, but also African populations to some extent.

The potential impact of climatic events on the demography, and thus the genetic diversity of early Europeans, has previously been difficult to quantify, but it likely had consequences for the relative components of ancient ancestry in modern-day populations [14]. Our demographic modeling reveals a dynamic history of hunter-gatherers, including a previously unknown major population shift during the Late Glacial interstadial (the Bølling-Allerød, ∼14.5 ka). Under our best-fitting model (Figure 3 and 2b in Figure S2), the small initial founder population of Europe slowly grows up until ∼25 ka and survives with smaller size in LGM climatic refugia (25–19.5 ka) [25] before re-expanding as the ice sheets retract (Figure 1B). Although this model supports population continuity from pre- to post-LGM, the genetic bottleneck is consistent with the apparent loss of hg M in the post-LGM. The subsequent Late Glacial period is characterized by drastic climatic fluctuations, beginning with an abrupt warming during the Bølling-Allerød interstadial and followed by a similarly drastic period of cooling during the Younger Dryas [24]. Globally, the early warming phases of the Late Glacial are strongly associated with substantial demographic changes, including extinctions of several megafaunal species [34] and the first expansion of modern humans into the Americas [35]. In European hunter-gatherers, our model best explains this period of upheaval as a replacement of the post-LGM maternal population by one from another source. Although the exact origin for this later population is unknown, the inferred demographic history (Figure 3 and 2b in Figure S2) suggests that it descended from another, separate LGM refugium. On the basis of mtDNA alone, we cannot rule out some degree of genomic continuity throughout the Late Pleistocene and early Holocene hunter-gatherer populations, and thus into present-day Europeans [14]. For this reason, we interpret our model as capturing the maternal signal of a major population shift, rather than a complete replacement. Ancient nuclear DNA data and additional geographically and temporally distributed specimens may provide a more comprehensive picture, possibly identifying the source and ancestry of these later incoming hunter-gatherers.

In conclusion, the large dataset presented here allowed us to provide a late upper bound on the major dispersal of all non-Africans and to uncover unexpected population dynamics of European hunter-gatherers. The Late Glacial event that we identify here is the oldest in an accumulating list of major European population turnovers revealed by ancient mtDNA [20].

Author Contributions

D.G.D., H.R., C.C., F.V., C.T., M.F., M.M., M.B., M.L., E.G., G.C. I.C., C.B., D.F., M.G., J.v.d.P., R.C., B.G., A.R., K.W., H.B., D.G., J.S., D.C., P.S., K.H., and N.J.C. provided archeological material and related information. C.P., A.M., A.F., and C.W. performed laboratory work. C.P., G.R., W.H., A.P., and J.K. analyzed genetic data. C.P., W.H., A.P., and J.K. wrote the manuscript with input from all co-authors.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful for comments from Stephan Schiffels, Hugo Reyes-Centeno, David Reich, Maria Spyrou, Henrike Heyne, Heidi Colleran, and members of the Department of Archaeogenetics of the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, as well as the three anonymous reviewers. We thank Pontus Skoglund, Qiaomei Fu, Viviane Slon, and Eppie Ruth-Jones for access to unpublished data, Martyna Molak, Alexander Peltzer, Marek Dynowski, and Judith Beier for technical support, and Annette Günzel for graphical support. We further thank the Soprintendenza Archeologia della Puglia, which authorized and supported the excavations at Grotta Paglicci, and Professor A. Palma di Cesnola for fieldwork and studies over the years. Part of this work was performed on the computational resource bwGRiD Cluster Tübingen funded by the Ministry of Science, Research and the Arts Baden-Württemberg and the Universities of the State of Baden-Württemberg, Germany, within the framework program bwHPC. J.K. and C.P. were supported by the Baden Württemberg Foundation, J.K. and A.M. by the DFG grant KR 4015/1-1, and K.H. by the European Research Council (ERC StG 283503). The Goyet project led by H.R. was funded by the Wenner-Gren Foundation (grant no. 7837), the College of Social and Behavioral Sciences of CSUN, and the RBINS.

Accession Numbers

The accession numbers for the 35 mtDNA genome sequences reported in this paper are GenBank: KU534947–KU534981.

Supplemental Information

Document S1. Supplemental Experimental Procedures, Figures S1 and S2, and Tables S1–S6

Document S2. Article plus Supplemental Information

{ http://www.cell.com/current-biology/home }

Universe's 'Dark Ages' May Come to Light with Moon Orbiter — **The Dark Ages Radio Explorer would orbit the moon, taking readings with a radio telescope while it was shielded from Earth in order to probe the universe's early "dark ages."**
**Credit: University of Colorado**

A proposed spacecraft would orbit the moon, sheltering in its shadow to gaze uninterrupted into the early days of the universe.

The Dark Ages Radio Explorer (DARE) mission would dodge Earth's noisy, disruptive environment to peer back into the universe's dark ages and cosmic dawn — the mysterious epoch just as the first stars and galaxies began to shine — with a little help from the moon.

"The moon, in this case, is just a big blocking disk," said Jack Burns, director of the Lunar University Network for Astrophysics Research at University of Colorado, Boulder and DARE's principal investigator. [How the DARE Dark Ages Moon Orbiter Will Work (Infographic)]

"We've argued that this is a unique way, and may turn out to be effectively the only way, of probing these first stars and galaxies that occurred in our universe — that led to galaxies like the Milky Way, stars like our sun, several generations later," he told Space.com.

QUIET!

DARE is a proposed lunar satellite that would study the early era of the universe when the stars first starting turning on. <a href="http://www.space.com/31742-dare-dark-ages-radio-explorer-spacecraft-infographic.html">See how the DARE satellite works in our full infographic here</a>. — **DARE is a proposed lunar satellite that would study the early era of the universe when the stars first starting turning on. See how the DARE satellite works in our full infographic here.**
**Credit: by Karl Tate, Infographics artist**

Research suggests the universe formed in the Big Bang about 13.8 billion years ago, and the earliest light astronomers can detect, called the cosmic microwave background (CMB), dates from about 400,000 years later.

But soon after that, until about 1 billion years after the Big Bang, the universe was filled with a haze of neutral hydrogen — atoms with one proton and one electron each. That haze muffled the signals of the first stars' formation so they are not detectable today.

Burns and his collaborators plan to measure the neutral hydrogen itself, which surrounded and was heated by the very first stars and galaxies, to learn about that long-ago epoch.

The signal neutral hydrogen gives off is easy to detect when it's relatively close by; researchers have measured its 21-centimeter-long wavelength (about 8 inches) since the 1950s to learn about the diffuse gas that lies between stars. But when the signal is coming from the universe's far reaches, things get more complicated: the farther away the source is, the more stretched out the signal gets, because the source is moving away from Earth faster and faster. That "redshift" effect means that, because the universe is expanding, light will always appear redder when it comes from farther away (which also means earlier in time).

With the time periods DARE is dealing with, and the distance the light has to travel, those easily measured 21 cm waves can get very stretched out — the researchers plan to look for wavelengths from 8.2 feet (2.5 meters) to 24.6 feet (7.5 m) long, Burns said. Plus, he added, they shine incredibly faintly.

This raises two main problems. First, the charged layer of Earth's atmosphere, the ionosphere, "wreaks havoc" with the radio waves that come through, Burns said, absorbing and refracting them until they're too difficult to interpret. And many of the wavelengths he's interested in run up against a major Earth emission — FM radio, which uses the same wavelengths of light and overwhelms the faint signal. [The Universe: Big Bang to Now in 10 Easy Steps]

"We've concluded that these observations are best done from a very quiet place that has no ionosphere," Burns said. "And in the local part of our solar system nearest the Earth, that would correspond to the far side of the moon."

DARE would take observations during the portion of its 2-hour orbit when the moon shields it from Earth's radio waves, while it's on the moon's far side. When shielded from the sun as well, the spacecraft could collect higher-quality data; the best possible time is during the full moon, DARE materials said.

Blasting off

Burns hopes to submit a proposal to NASA's Explorer program in December — if selected to do a concept study and chosen for flight after that, the mission could launch somewhere around 2021 or 2022, he said.

The DARE team has partnered with Ball Aerospace, which is also based in Boulder, to develop plans to repurpose one of the company's smaller spacecraft to deliver the probe to lunar orbit.

"One of the main differences between this mission and most other satellite missions is the lunar orbit," Lisa Hardaway, the lead for Ball Aerospace on the DARE spacecraft, told Space.com in an email. "We used a motor that acts as a third stage, similar to when Apollo was launched. There have been a few missions to the moon that have used similar techniques, but most of our launches are for Earth orbit, so this is anything but routine." A separate mission partner will be in charge of the rocket and booster, she added.

Once in place around the moon, isolated from Earth's noise, measuring the faint signals will still be a challenge, Burns said. For instance, radiation from the spacecraft itself can distort the sensitive measurements if it's not properly shielded. The mission will also need to rule out the much brighter "foreground" radiation in the Milky Way itself.

"The telescope and spacecraft have to work together to collect the needed data, yet be isolated from each other so that spacecraft signals do not interfere with instrument signals," Hardaway said. "To that end, instrument electronics are buried within the spacecraft except for those highly sensitive electronics that need to be directly with the antenna."

Undiscovered worlds

Other projects are in progress, on the ground, to look at slightly later periods in the universe's history with the same neutral-hydrogen signal. For instance, the proposed Hydrogen Epoch of Reionization Array, HERA, would look at the "reionization period," when ultraviolet light from newly forming stars destroyed the neutral hydrogen and eventually rendered the universe visible at high wavelengths again. Projects like HERA require similarly sensitive antennas to pick out the signals they're searching for.

"The biggest challenge is not unique to DARE," said HERA project leader Aaron Parsons, an astronomer at the University of California, Berkeley. "There's a lot of other stuff in the sky that's bright, that is emitting light at these frequencies. It's maybe 100,000 times brighter than the signal that we'd like to see in the early universe." [Amazing Photos from Giant Radio Telescope ALMA]

DARE makes some aspects of detecting faint signals easier by getting away from interference, and certain signals can only be detected from space, Parsons told Space.com, but designing precise-enough antennas will still be difficult.

In fact, Parsons said, strides made in ground-based radio telescopes could make missions like DARE more plausible in the long run.

"Once you've shown the science capabilities of [detecting the signal], then the stage will be really set for something like DARE, where you bring this out into space," he said.

For both DARE and ground-based radio telescope projects, neutral hydrogen is the key to seeing what the universe was like long ago — giving a perspective that no earlier astronomy has been able to give, the researchers said.

"It's only been in the last, let's say 30 years that we've been able to answer quantitative questions about cosmology; where our universe came from, what it was like long ago, how did we get to where we are, what's the ultimate fate of the universe," Parsons said, adding that this knowledge has all come from measuring a tiny snippet of the universe's early history, when the cosmic background radiation was emitted. "One little slice, and we've learned all this incredible stuff about cosmology."

Projects such as DARE and HERA would extend our sight into the vital moments after the universe went dark, and as it transitioned to being light again, Parsons said.

"Rather than just having this thin shell that we're learning from, we can be learning from the whole volume of the universe," he said. "And that's really incredible."

Email Sarah Lewin at slewin@space.com or follow her @SarahExplains. Follow us @Spacedotcom, Facebook and Google+. Original article on Space.com.

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Pleistocene Mitochondrial Genomes Suggest a Single Major Dispersal of Non-Africans and a Late Glacial Population Turnover in Europe

Results and Discussion

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Author Contributions

Acknowledgments

Accession Numbers

Supplemental Information

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