How Metal Artists In India Are Keeping A 4,500-Year-Old Craft Alive (Video)

Despite the challenges, metal artists in India are working to keep the ancient craft of Dhokra art alive. This traditional craft involves the use of a non-ferrous metal, often brass or bronze, to create intricate and detailed sculptures. The process of creating Dhokra art, which has endured for over four millennia, involves a combination of wax casting and metal casting techniques, resulting in unique and one-of-a-kind pieces.

To ensure the survival of this craft, metal artists are working to adapt and evolve their techniques, while also educating younger generations about the art form. By incorporating modern technologies and experimenting with new materials, these artists are finding new ways to produce Dhokra art and keep the tradition alive for future generations to appreciate and enjoy.

• Top image: A bronze sculpture, representational.
• Source: DivineWorld / Adobe Stock

By Joanna Gillan

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22-03-2023 om 01:44 geschreven door peter  

Peruvian Archaeologists Uncover Two-faced Moche Men with Cosmic Connections

Painted on a pillar within a ceremonial hall, archaeologists have found a 1,400-year-old “two faced man”, with cosmic associations.

The Moche culture was a pre-Columbian civilization that thrived between 100 BC and 700 AD, farming and fishing, in the northern coastal region of Peru. Known for their exquisite pottery featuring animals, people, and scenes from everyday life, they were also skilled metalworkers and produced fine gold and silver jewelry.

Now, a team of archaeologists have discovered two 1,400-year-old murals depicting two-faced men within a ceremonial hall. According to a report in Live Science , the two-faced men might refer to sacrifice, and "cosmic realms".

Upper and lower men are visible here on the pillar. Archaeologist Gabriela Cervantes Quequezana examines the imagery of the painted pillar.

(Lisa Trever/ Panamarca)

Rediscovering Ancient Artisans

Two murals of two-faced men holding unusual treasures were unearthed by archaeologists in August 2022 at the 1,400-year-old archaeological site of Pañamarca. Located in Peru's lower Nepeña Valley province of Huari, in the Ancash region of coastal Peru, the site features a large complex of stone structures including a central plaza, several temples, and residential areas. The murals were drawn between 550 AD and 800 AD, at the height of the Moche people’s rule of northern coastal Peru.

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The archaeological work was conducted by the Archaeological Research Project (PIA) “ Paisajes Arqueológicos de Pañamarca ” which is collaboratively led by the international team of Jessica Ortiz Zevallos, Lisa Trever of Columbia University and Michele Koons of the Denver Museum of Nature & Science (DMNS).

Interpreting The Painted Pillar

The two murals both adorn the same pillar within a large ceremonial hall. One of the murals, located at the top of the pillar, features a man with two faces holding a feather fan in one hand, and in the other hand he holds a goblet with four hummingbirds drinking from it. The second two-faced man is painted on the lower aspect of the pillar and has a moving feather fan in one hand and a stick-like object in the other.

Two images of two-faced men have been discovered at the Moche site of Pañamarca, Peru. Left; The upper figure painted on the pillar holding a goblet feeding hummingbirds, and a feather fan. Right; the lower figure holding a fan and an unidentified stick-like object.  

(Lisa Trever/ Panamarca)

Both of the two-faced men are depicted with headdresses or crowns and wearing colorful clothing held tight with sizable belts. Lisa Trever is an associate professor of pre-Columbian art history and archaeology at Columbia University , who led the discovery team, and she told Live Science that the reason the Moche artists depicted these two men “is a mystery.”

Probing the Two-faced Men Mystery

Dr. Trever suspects that the ancient artists may have been “experimenting with how to show movement, and two narrative moments at once." Furthermore, the archaeologist suspects the two men “may be deities,” but she added that this is uncertain because most depictions of deities in Moche art have non-human aspects “like fangs, or the faces or tails or wings of various creatures.” But these two murals, even though they have two faces, “seem entirely human," Trever noted.

Since uncovering the first mural in 1958, archaeologists have been studying the ceremonial hall at Pañamarca, now for over 60 years. Putting the depictions of two headed men in context, other murals within the ceremonial hall depict a priestess, a serpent and a bat. And according to a statement by the team, despite six decades of study, much of the hall is still unexcavated and it is thought that many more murals are awaiting discovery.

Panoramas of the Moche complex under excavation at Pañamarca. 

(Aerial drone photography by J. Antonio Ochatoma Cabrera/ Panamarca)

Exploring Cosmic Connections

Trever said one of the interesting things about the hall is the unusual density of paintings within it. This means the team can only excavate selected aspects of the building each archaeological field season. Trever said the team still has a lot of questions about the architecture and its functions and that it's still unknown how the Moche used this ritual space.

What is known about the ceremonial hall, however, is that it was reserved for use only by priests. The narrow passages and interior spaces suggest ritual use, and that “it was not a public space." Trever added it was probably open to “the leaders or elders of the community at Pañamarca." Edward Swenson , director of the Archaeology Centre at the University of Toronto, told Live Science that the two-faced men might have represented “a mortal wearing a mask and thus impersonating or becoming one with [the] supernatural." Furthermore, a connection with the gods might also be indicated in the detail of the hummingbirds drinking from the goblet.

Picking From the Peruvian Pantheon

Swenson said he interprets the hummingbirds drinking from the cup as “a powerful invocation of the centrality of sacrifice in Moche worldview." He added that sacrifice served as “a critical mechanism to ensure the circulation of life-giving fluids between beings and cosmic realms."

Like the Inca of Peru, the Moche people worshipped a wide variety of gods and deities associated with nature, agriculture, and fertility. Their primary gods included “Ai-Apaec,” a god of sacrifice and warfare; the “Decapitator,” who was a god of death and the underworld; and the Moon Goddess, who was associated with fertility, childbirth, and the menstrual cycle. It might be the case that the hummingbird was regarded as a messenger of the gods, transferring sacrificed human souls to the other world/s.

• Top image: The two-faced Moche man figure painted on the lower part of the pillar. Two images of two-faced men have been discovered at the Moche site of Pañamarca, Peru.  
• Source: Lisa Trever/ Panamarca

By Ashley Cowie

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21-03-2023 om 22:49 geschreven door peter  

Is Archaeology Getting it Wrong? ‘Ancient Stone Tools’ Accidentally Made by Modern Monkeys

Archaeologists from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology have announced their discovery of stone fragments that closely resemble ancient stone tools made by prehistoric humans. What is notable is that these apparently worked stone objects were actually made unintentionally by old world monkeys living in the forests of Thailand. Does this have implications for stone flakes taken to be tools at ancient hominin sites?

These industrious monkeys were not trying to make cutting or scraping tools. Yet they still produced pieces of rock with sharp edges perfect for cutting and scraping, as a side effect of their use of larger chunks of rocks to crack open hard nuts and shellfish. Impressively sharp flakes are sometimes chipped off during this process, and incredibly enough these rock slices look and feel a lot like some objects that have been identified as ancient stone tools purposely made by ancient humans and by ancient human ancestors.

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Until now, it had been believed that hominins like Homo sapiens ( modern humans ) and Neanderthals were history’s only toolmakers. But the stunning results of this new study, which has just been published in Science Advances , call into question the identification of at least some ancient stone tools as human cutting or scraping objects.

This wouldn’t be the case for all of the tools identified , since many (if not most) ancient stone tools are found in archaeological contexts that show other indications of human settlement and activity. But isolated stone “tools” supposedly made by ancient toolmaking cultures may now require much more careful analysis than in the past, to be sure that they really are human artifacts.

Examples of sharp-edged flakes produced unintentionally by long-tailed macaques. (© Proffitt et al, 2023/ Science)

If Monkeys Can Make ‘Tools’ Too, what Are the Ramifications?

The animals studied in this research were long-tailed macaques living in Phang Nga National Park along Thailand’s southwestern peninsular coast. The clever macaques use heavy stones to break open nuts and shellfish, and over time these stones have a tendency to break into pieces after repeated use. Pieces of these stones can be found all over the park land, and many of them do indeed bear a remarkable resemblance to the sharpened stone tools recovered from various ancient archaeological sites in East Africa.

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“The ability to intentionally make sharp stone flakes is seen as a crucial point in the evolution of hominins, and understanding how and when this occurred is a huge question that is typically investigated through the study of past artifacts and fossils,” lead study author Tomos Proffitt stated in a Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology press release .

“Our study shows that stone tool production is not unique to humans and our ancestors.”

Notably, this is not the first study that suggests some ancient stone tools could actually have been made by monkeys. A 2016 University of Oxford study published in the journal  Nature revealed that capuchin monkeys living in Brazil’s Serra de Capivara National Park frequently created rock flakes and chips that looked exactly like prehistoric stone tools (these primates use hard quartz and quartzite rock to break open stones that contain mineral dust they like to lick). The authors of that study noted similarities between the shapes of the capuchin “artifacts” and some of the simpler tools associated with the ancient Oldowan culture , which is alleged to have been manufacturing stone tools in East Africa more than two million years ago.

Did Humans Make the First Sharp-Edged Tools by Accident?

Naturally, a lot of the focus on this study will be on the doubts raised about past identifications of stone tools as man-made artifacts. But another important aspect of the research is what it suggests about how ancient humans started using sharp-edged tools in the first place.

Were the earliest modern humans, or human ancestors living millions of years ago, manufacturing all these tools themselves? Or did they start out by experimenting with sharp rock chips and flakes created when they were using larger rocks to break open difficult-to-access food sources?

“Cracking nuts using stone hammers and anvils, similar to what some primates do today, has been suggested by some as a possible precursor to intentional stone tool production,” said Lydia Luncz, the senior study author and the head of the Technological Primates Research Group at the Max Planck Institute. “This discovery shows how living primates can help researchers investigate the origin and evolution of tool use in our own lineage.”

Healthy Skepticism Means Better Science

In order to uncover accurate information about the origin of important cultural practices, archaeologists must interpret ancient artifacts properly and not misidentify natural objects as man-made. In this instance, the situation is interesting because the “natural forces” that can produce objects resembling human tools are still emerging from the intelligent actions of a primate species.

From now on there may be added uncertainty about whether relatively simple sharp-edged stone tools taken from ancient sites were really made by humans as cutting tools. To reach a definitive conclusion researchers will need to rely on more than the presence of sharp edges on stone flakes to identify them as man-made. Such identifications will now require added context to make them fully accepted, meaning they will need to be found mixed in with other man-made objects, collections of animal bones, or other remnants of past human activity that make it obvious that the stone objects were really tools and were being used as such.

In the long run this added scrutiny will be beneficial to the archaeological profession, as its research into prehistoric toolmaking practices will be carried out with a bit more healthy skepticism than was present before.

• Top image: Example of a long-tailed macaque using a stone tool to access food.  
• Source: © Lydia V. Luncz/ Science

By Nathan Falde

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21-03-2023 om 22:10 geschreven door peter  

Is There More to the Mechanics of the Great Pyramid?

At the beginning of March, Egypt’s Ministry of Tourism & Antiquities (MOTA) announced a newly discovered chamber above the main (North) entrance to the Pyramid of Khufu, also known as the Great Pyramid of Giza, outside Cairo. This 9 meter by 2 meter chamber sits directly above the North entrance, and why it was included there currently remains unknown. Could it be part of a long since dismantled locking system?

Another cavity exists between the Grand Gallery and the King’s Chamber, and far more is known about this space, which has a 3 stone blocking mechanism. But it is still somewhat enigmatic. Here, with an analysis of what is known of the construction of the blocking mechanism of this Antechamber, a mystery of the whole of the pyramid’s design is explored.

Current Thinking on the Antechamber to the King’s Chamber

From the time of the early archaeologists, the Antechamber between the Grand Gallery and the King’s chamber of the Pyramid of Khufu has been supposed to be a blocking device with three granite blocks in a row. The empty sarcophagus in the King’s chamber, the majestic Grand Gallery leading to it and this elaborate closing device led everyone to accept blindly that this was Khufu’s burial chamber. Three blocks were obviously meant to seal this chamber off.

The blocking is assumed to have worked this way. Maragioglio & Rinaldi: L’archittura delle piramidi Menfiti, parte 4, tavole (tav. 8 detail).

The vertical protruding “ribs” on the east and west walls looks like guiding lines for blocks. Fair enough. But why three, when one bigger one would be sufficient? Is it symbolic?

This way of blocking the entrance is not used in other pyramids we know of. Cylindrical rollers over the blocks seem to have been used to lower them into sealing-off position. Accurately measured drawings of Maragioglio & Rinaldi show how the blocks, in their view, were simply held up temporarily by wooden logs. So, while others bashed the supporting logs away, the blocks were held back by workers holding ropes, and then slowly lowered into their closing position.

I have calculated the weight of one such stone block to be approximately 1.5 -2 tons, (1.2m x 1.2m x 0.5 m = approx.0.8 m ³ x 2.5 t (average weight of 1 m ³ granite) = approx. 2 t). So it would have taken the weight of 20-30 Egyptians weighing 70 kg each just to hold one block. They must have been standing in the Grand Gallery. But why have nice rollers above the blocks and then a sharp – not even rounded - edge on the corridor’s ceiling. It doesn’t seem well planned.

The ropes must have gone out under a sharp edge.

(Guardian's Egypt - Copyright © 1995-2014 Andrew Bayuk. All Rights Reserved/ Guardian.net)

And what about the open shaft in front of the closing blocks? If the blocks were supposed to be lowered by gradually slacking the ropes over the cylindrical rollers, it leaves this “pre-Antechamber” open to intruders afterwards, who would quickly realize that only the inner of the three blocks would have to be broken to gain access to the supposed burial chamber. Not very smart, though I admit that the damage to the southern wall (repaired) could suggest an attack from above.

But why use rollers at all?

This was a very complicated system for a one-time use. Ropes would easily slide over rounded edges of normally square blocks - the friction would even help the careful lowering, giving an argument against the roller idea - and with just narrow gaps or holes in the masonry, grave-robbers would have had a much harder job.

The rollers led me to conclude that they may have been familiar with pulley systems. Also, because I believe in Australian Paul Hai’s theory: that they rolled big stone blocks, even up the pyramid sides, with the help of convex wooden “sleighs” fastened to the blocks. Models of such sleighs or “rockers” are found.

Images from Paul Hai’s book, illustrating his wonderful idea. (Author provided)

Gods and Chambers

In an earlier article I have proposed that the closing system was designed to be used time after time and was made as a counterweight opening and closing system. It is the most logical reason for using rollers to eliminate friction.

The idea suits my basic theory that all the chambers in the pyramid were equally important.

I believe that each chamber honored one of the cosmological gods of the area. The Giza pyramids are only 30 km from Heliopolis. The five first listed gods there were gods for nature elements – earth, water (actually rain and mist = water moving vertically), and air, for some, and the three chambers we know were formed to suit one god’s element each. The gods in question were Geb, Tefnut and Shu respectfully.

And yes, I do believe that two other chambers existed: one on top of the pyramid honoring the sky goddess Nut, just covered by the pyramid’s casing stones until they fell off in an earthquake, which also loosened many of the casing stones from the sides; and a hidden chamber honoring the sun- and creator god Re-Atum. These five were the gods who had created the world.

Built vertically into the pyramid the chambers were steps on a ladder helping the deceased king ascend to heaven.

Khufu’s pyramid, including the two missing chambers higher up. I believe the chambers honored local element gods. (Author provided)

All the Chambers Display Symbolism

I believe that Khufu was buried in the subterranean chamber. The chamber was not unfinished and abandoned. This was the earth god Geb’s chamber, and a lot of the bedrock was left, intentionally giving the impression of a quarry. We can imagine how stone masonry was highly respected in ancient Egypt – a divine craft associated with Geb, I presume. Looking carefully you will see that there is a flat level area big enough to house a sarcophagus, wooden, assembled on the spot.

When the Greek historian Herodotus visited Egypt two thousand years after Khufu lived, priests told Herodotus that the king lay buried under the pyramid, on an island surrounded by water coming from an artificial canal.

With a wooden tube and some water, the words of Herodotus are brought to life in a symbolic tableau. (Author provided)

Now watch how much difference a little imagination can result in: All it takes to make us realize that Herodotus’ words may be a rather precise description of an incredible original tableau is a square wooden tube. Placed vertically in the well, with two sides resting on the cut-out ledge and tightened with clay or silt you would have a proper water well (it has been dug out deep enough to conclude that it reached ground water level at least in flooded periods).

Why have they dug the well so deep? Because they needed a lot of water. Pouring water onto the floor would result in a tableau like the one I have drawn. And more water was needed higher in the pyramid.

The Queen’s chamber and the Grand Gallery. Maragioglio tav. 7, partly cleaned for clarity. (Author provided)

Water in Tefnut’s (the Queen’s) chamber. (Author provided)

The Queen’s chamber and the Grand Gallery were wonderful gems too and call for attention, but they are only briefly referred to in this article. The Queen’s chamber had water on the floor and water in the closed canals.

Details reveal that the Grand Gallery is not my missing chamber for the sun god – the sloping Gallery is clearly not a chamber – and anyway his chamber should be closer to the sky/the top chamber. I have come to the conclusion that the Gallery is linked to the sun anyway, in the respect that it represents the sun’s rays, bringing warmth, light, heat, fire and life to the lower world. It represents the fire element on earth, whereas the sun god’s actual chamber is higher up.

Counterweight System Details

After a critical examination of the system I previously proposed for the opening and closing system: a wooden tube, balanced by a stone block in the first shaft, I have realized it was a hasty thought. A wooden tube, even three times the size of one blocking stone, would not balance the weight of a heavy stone counterweight. A wooden tube, even 20 cm (8 inches) thick and having a base area of approx. 1x2 meters – 2 square meters, would only weigh as much as 600 kg, having the average weight of e.g. cedar wood.

The remains of the counterweight stone from the shaft in front may very well be the broken stone block with drilled holes on display outside the pyramid’s entrance. From the looks of it (I haven’t measured) it is as thick as the other assumed stone blocks, therefore possibly weighing 1.5-2 tons.

The wooden tube idea. (Author provided)

I regret having to give up the wooden tube idea. The side walls’ ribs of stone would function as fine guides preventing the tube from getting stuck (from tilting forwards or backwards). I do realize that a tube could be made heavier by putting extra stones on top of it or inside the tube, but a whole extra ton?

Another counterweight possibility: a stone basin, closed and open.
The grill (see below) still waits for someone to pull the rope. (Author provided)

A Low Stone Basin

To balance a stone block, “the wooden tube” must instead have been made of stone. A basin almost formed as a sarcophagus, open in both ends, would work. With side wall thicknesses like the sarcophagus inside the chamber, which is c. 15 cm (6 inches), the side walls of a stone basin may have had about the height of the corridor, and contained some water.

Alternately the basin could have had rather low sides and a bottom thickness of about the half of the counterweight, c. 25 cm (because the vertical counterweight area is roughly half that of the floor area under the three rollers). The low side version is shown here, but higher sides would better prevent it from being stuck by tilting.

The vertical grooves with a grill.  The grooves continue all up to the ceiling. (Unknown photographer)

Grooves for ropes or a grill?

The interesting vertical grooves on the south wall, over the last bit of corridor leading to the King’s Chamber, could have given room for the ropes holding the inner block, in the popular three-block version. But why, in that case, were the grooves chiseled in all the way up to the ceiling? Even though the big wall stone with the most of the grooves ends a little below the ceiling, the grooves continue on another stone. That would not be necessary, if those grooves were for ropes around the roller.

The grooves could instead have guided a grill, blocking the entrance. It could be lifted with a rope going around the closest roller. It is the best use I can see for these grooves. The grill can be held close to the wall with a wooden beam or two, crossing from wall to wall. An explanation to why it should be there is proposed below.

Temple Functions

Rites were carried out in the grave temple outside the pyramid. Could the pyramid itself be a temple? The later roman writer Apuleius describes in his book The Golden Ass his own initiation into the Isis cult. He wrote that he came to the boundaries of death and then returned, going through all the elements . The Greeks had (re-) invented the elements by then, without gods, but his significant words about elements give meaning to speculations of whether Khufu’s pyramid with its element chambers functioned as an initiation temple as well as grave for a king.

In such a context the Ante-chamber’s layout is very interesting. Coming to this level the initiate would have descended to the bottom chamber, had seen the sarcophagus, had noticed the bedrock linking this chamber to the earth god Geb, had noticed the water seemingly floating in from the square canal on the opposite wall, and seen the hollow upper end of the wooden tube, seemingly a hole to the underworld. To him, this was the boundaries of death.

From here he went up, visited the Queen’s chamber (Tefnut’s watery element), and had passed through the stylized sun beams of the Grand Gallery. Now he stood on the landing in front of the last earthbound element’s chamber, the air god Shu’s chamber. He was the god who had lifted the sky from the earth and was still holding it up by his hands, standing on the earth.
The initiate found the entrance closed.

Natural vertical order of elements. Sky goddess Nut held up by air god Shu. Earth god Geb lying on the ground. The sun sailed below the sky. (Author provided)

A Test

Standing in front of a closed entrance must have felt like being tested. Now what? He should probably demonstrate that he mastered manipulation of the elements he had passed on his way.

One of the earth element’s most obvious powers is its weight. Could he overcome that?

The blocking stone didn’t rest perfectly on the floor. A one-centimeter gap gave him no other choice than to try to lift the stone by hands, if he wanted to enter Shu’s chamber. So he tried - and the block moved (due to the low-friction rollers)!

The next thing he saw was glowing and burning charcoal (or dried camel dung) in the next three to four meters (the floor is depressed here, and the air channels in the chamber conveniently ventilated out most of the smoke). Fire… how could he pass this fire without getting grave skin burns? Furthermore, a grill blocked his way, and a much larger stone block was coming down as he lifted the entrance door.

Lifting the door stone all the way up revealed that the descending stone was a stone basin, covering the first half of the burning path. The basin contained water.

Having stood in water in Tefnut’s chamber he would now rely on her help to extinguish (control) the fire in a narrow path. Having wet feet would also help him to a safe passage.

Just the grill remained. Either it had gone up automatically when he lowered the basin, or better, a dangling rope gave him the final opportunity to demonstrate decision and will to enter Shu’s chamber.

Maragioglio & Rinaldi, tav.4, detail. (Author provided)

In line with later initiation symbolism the sarcophagus in Shu’s chamber implies that the initiate now had to symbolically die by entering the sarcophagus and well, maybe die “the small dead”- go to sleep, or in another way open his mind to the afterlife : he was spoken to by heavenly voices, coming from somewhere (above the ceiling)! This was probably the reason for the narrow-dug tunnel leading from high over the Gallery landing into the lowest of the so-called weight-relieving chambers above the King’s chamber.

This finished his task – now he was reborn, having been dead, having been spoken to by gods.
Having realized that the elements and their chambers were steps in the pyramid’s stairway to heaven - he was now initiated.

And we are too, having understood and refurnished the Antechamber.

• Top image: Khufu pyramid from the northeast view.
• Source: dynamofoto/Adobe Stock

By Niels Bjerre Jorgensen

{ https://www.ancient-origins.net/ }

21-03-2023 om 21:30 geschreven door peter  

10 Bizarre Relics from History

Footprints, Fairies and even a Foreskin...

From time immemorial, people had the need to venerate objects of great significance: religious relics, mythical symbols, or depictions of holy figures. And as if answering this need, the religious establishment has provided. Throughout time relics have been widely worshiped throughout the world. Some of them are relics in the true meaning of that term: holy items of ancient times that are a marvel to witness. Then again, some relics are simply strange and bizarre. Reading about them we can easily explore the limits of human belief and analyze the complex anatomies of faith.

1. The Fairy Flag: Strange Relic of the MacLeod Clan in Scotland

A relic is not necessarily a religious item. Some of them can be important heirlooms and artifacts with a lengthy heritage and history. One such item is the so-called Fairy Flag, a venerated and very old heirloom of the Chiefs of the Scottish Clan MacLeod . Known in Scottish as Am Bratach Sìth, it is kept in the clan’s seat at Dunvegan Castle and is considered an indivisible part of their heritage.

• The Mysterious Fairy Flag of Clan MacLeod and its Legendary Protective Powers

• The Hippie Town of Calcata - Hiding-Place of the Holy Foreskin of Christ

The Fairy Flag is made from silk that originated in the far east, denoting its luxury status on the remote Isle of Skye. Being very old, it is now quite torn and tattered, and covered with tiny red “elf spots.” Shrouded in mystery, this strange relic has attained legendary status and is said to have magical properties and plenty of healing powers . Its origins are somewhat enigmatic, and the legends state that the MacLeod chiefs were presented with the flag by fairy folk . However, scholars suggested that its origins might lie not with the fairies, but in the Crusades, or the Viking invasions, for whom it could have been a raven banner. Nevertheless, it remains as one of the most precious and strangest in Scotland.

2. The Footprints of Muhammad: Petrified Relics of the Prophet

The founder of Islam, the Prophet Muhammad is the most venerated figure of this widespread religion. Accordingly, just like in Christianity, religious relics associated with him are aplenty. But one stands out as quite peculiar: the petrified footprint of Muhammad. Some Muslims believe that wherever the prophet stepped, his left foot made an impression that remained fixed in place.

According to numerous written and oral sources, this prophet left numerous such footprints across the Arabic world. One such alleged footprint is located in the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul, where it is venerated by thousands of believers every year. Some other notable examples of his preserved footprints are located in the mausoleum of Qaitbey in Cairo, or in the Mosque of the Footprint in Qadam, just south of Damascus and directly on the pilgrimage route to Mecca.

Numerous legends are associated with these peculiar relics. One legend says that a royal eunuch of the Nizam (Muslim Indian sovereign) once discovered an imprint after being guided to it by a dream vision of the prophet himself. Whatever one might believe, a petrified footprint is certainly a strange phenomenon, and also one that is quite difficult to skillfully replicate or fake.

3. The Holy Prepuce of Jesus Christ

Possibly one of the strangest relics in the world, the Holy Prepuce - also known as the Holy Foreskin - is just another in a long line of relics associated with Jesus Christ . This relic allegedly originates from the circumcision of Christ, and became an important religious item in the early periods of Christianity. Numerous healing powers have been attributed to this foreskin, and it was soon claimed as a prized item by several churches in Europe.

Alongside the umbilical cord of Christ, the foreskin had a long and turbulent journey in medieval Europe. In 800 AD, it was given as a present to Pope Leo III by King Charlemagne, who most likely received the relic as a present from the Byzantine Empress Irene. The Pope housed the relic in a lavish jeweled gold cross, which was kept under the altar of the Chapel of Saint Lawrence in Rome.

Alas, with the Sack of Rome in 1527, the jeweled cross with Jesus’ foreskin was looted, and later retrieved in a village north of Rome, Calcata, where it was reportedly kept until 1983, when it was yet again stolen. However, its authenticity at that time was dubious at best, and the actual existence of the Holy Foreskin remains a big enigma. Nevertheless, as far as strange relics go, the veneration of a foreskin is definitely a strange practice.

5. The Antikythera Mechanism: The Ancient Analogue Computer

Just like religious relics carry a lot of importance for believers, so do the relics of ancient civilizations bear importance for history enthusiasts all over the world. The Antikythera Mechanism remains one of the strangest and most enigmatic discoveries connected with the ancient Greeks, puzzling the scientists to this very day. It was discovered in 1901 off the coast of the Greek island called Antikythera, within a shipwreck at a depth of 45 meters.

The complex gears and mechanism pieces that comprise it were soon recognized, and since then this item has been recognized as one of the world’s first analogue computers. What makes it so strange is the time in which it was built. Being made in roughly 100 BC, it is surprisingly advanced and seems almost futuristic in many ways.

This device is a complex clockwork mechanism that contains more than 30 delicate bronze gears. Scientists proposed that it was used as an orrery, used by the Ancient Greeks to predict astronomical positions and eclipses. Such knowledge could be used for calendar and astrological purposes and provide them with this information decades in advance. As such it is certainly one of the most enigmatic relics of the ancient world.

6. The Virgin Mary Grilled Cheese Sandwich

Yup, you read that right. When it comes to religious relics, the options become limitless. Not all religious relics were discovered in ancient history. The old toast and sandwich manifestation of holy figures is the true relic of modern times, as strange as it may seem. A woman from Fort Lauderdale in Florida, USA, named Diana Duyser, sold her 10-year-old grilled cheese sandwich in 2004 - with one bite taken out of it - for $28,000 on an online auction! But it was no ordinary grilled cheese sandwich: it allegedly bore the image of the face of the Virgin Mary . Mrs. Duyser kept the sandwich sealed for 10 years before deciding to try and sell it - she never assumed it would fetch such a stellar price.

For the faithful, it could be called a miracle. However, those with a bit more reason will realize that it is simply a curious coincidence: the dark crust formed a pattern that surprisingly accurately depicts a female face. This strange modern-day relic was bought by an online casino, the Golden Palace, whose representatives say that they quickly understood the novelty of such a “recognizable part of modern pop culture.” They did not hesitate to pay $28,000 (£20,113) to own it. This makes it the world’s most expensive grilled cheese sandwich!

7. The Remains of St. Datian in New York

The tradition of Catacomb Saints spread like wildfire through the Christian world, when holy relics and preserved skeletons of “saints” began emerging throughout the world. One such holy relic is considerably stranger than the others, and it found its way all the way to New York. This relic is the body of Saint Datian.

This odd relic is housed in a glass sarcophagus in the Church of the Most Holy Redeemer in East Village, New York City. Not much is known about Saint Datian. In fact, this saint is virtually unknown in preserved written sources. It is possible that Datian was a cruel roman leader who persecuted Christians zealously, but later repented, became a monk, and was later martyred.

The remains (bones) of this saint arrived at the church in 1892 and were housed in a lifelike wax effigy. The relics were donated to the church by a wealthy Italian lady, but the earlier origins of the bones remain a mystery. But some people quickly placed the authenticity of these remains into question. As early as 1897 it was suggested that the encased remains are actually those of a police officer shot and killed while defending the church from a burglary. This belief remained widespread until the late 1940’s. The truth about this strange relic remains unknown.

8. The Lion-Man of the Hohlenstein-Stadel: Prehistoric Ivory Relic

Religion - whether monotheistic or polytheistic - has deep and ancient origins. What beliefs did our earliest ancestors have? Have some of their ancient relics survived until today? The Lion-man, known also as Löwenmensch, is an elaborate prehistoric mammoth ivory figurine that quite possibly depicts an ancient mythical being worshipped by the prehistoric man. In 1939 it was discovered in a cave in Germany and is considered the oldest zoomorphic figurine in the world. Dated to the Upper Paleolithic, it is roughly 40,000 years old and was made from mammoth ivory .

Researchers came to a conclusion that the lion-headed figure was an important part of the mythology of the Paleolithic humans inhabiting this region. It also might be one of the earliest connections with shamanism. It deepens the mystery of numerous Paleolithic depictions of “beast-men,” like the bird-headed man from the Lascaux Cave , the lion-woman from Chauvet Cave , or the stag-headed “Sorcerer” from the Trois Frères cave. Prehistory was undoubtedly strange, seen now from our modern point of view, and ancient relics are all that remains of their belief systems.

9. Breast Milk of the Virgin Mary in Bethlehem

Another in a long line of strange Christian relics is the so-called breast milk of the Virgin Mary . “The Nursing Madonna,” or Maddona Lactans , has been often depicted in Christian religious art, nurturing the baby Jesus at her breast. But did you know that her breast milk is venerated as a relic? It is situated in the Chapel of the Milk Grotto of Our Lady in Bethlehem, some 10km south of Jerusalem. Ever since the Byzantine Era, this site has been frequented as one of the major Christian pilgrimage sites. It is believed that Virgin Mary found refuge in this grotto with infant Jesus, and while she breastfed him a drop of her milk fell on the cave floor and turned it white.

• The Mystery of the Lion Man Sculpture

• Erasing History: Why Islamic State is Blowing Up Ancient Artifacts

Pilgrims visit this site, especially those couples seeking to conceive a child as the faithful believe that this shrine helps those suffering with infertility. The Catholic officials sought to capitalize on this belief, selling limestone powder made from the stone of the grotto, which ought to be diluted in water and drank. It supposedly helps cure infertility. You thought that veneration of a foreskin is strange? How about drinking powdered cave floor? This strange relic is as strange as can be.

10. The Venus of Hohle Fels: 40,000-Year-Old Ivory Sculpture

Venus figurines are the most iconic relics of the world’s earliest history. These fertility symbols were one of the major cultic items for early humans, and pose a great insight into their cryptic and mysterious beliefs. The Venus Of Hohle Fels is one of the strangest of all ancient relics, and can be interpreted in many ways. Unearthed in the Hohle Fels cave in Germany, this ivory sculpture is dated to the very beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period, some 40,000 years ago. It is the oldest, undisputed depiction of a human being and gives us a crucial glimpse into the earliest origins of Cro-Magnons in Europe.

This relic might look strange to us, but for the early man it might have been a revered mythical concept. It depicts a buxom - perhaps even obese - woman with enormous breasts, a large (pregnant) belly, and a prominent vulva. These are clear connections with fertility. It can be easily understood that life was quite hard in the Upper Paleolithic and infant death rates could have been quite high. People were also probably malnourished and lean, so a depiction of a buxom, hale, and fat woman could have been an ideal of health, fertility, prosperity, and good life. Either way, we will never know the true meaning of the Venus figurines, and this one remains a truly strange ancient relic.

• Top image: The relics humans have chosen to worship over the course of human history can often help us understand the extent of belief systems and the anatomies of faith.
• Source: Top: Village Preservation Blog Bottom: epic_images / Adobe Stock; Public domain ; Golden Palace Events

By Aleksa Vučković

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{ https://www.ancientoriginsunleashed.com/ }

20-03-2023 om 01:40 geschreven door peter  

Top 15 Unbelievable Rock Sculptures (Video)

Marvels of human creativity and engineering prowess, these top 15 rock sculptures captivate the imagination and inspire awe. Among these awe-inspiring rock sculptures are the towering Colossal Statue of Shapur, the remarkable Gopachal Jain monuments , the poignant Lion of Lucerne , the imposing Apennine Colossus , and the serene Avukana Buddha. These extraordinary feats of artistry and craftsmanship have withstood the test of time, leaving an indelible mark on the landscape and serving as a testament to the heights of human achievement. As diverse as the cultures and epochs they represent, these magnificent rock sculptures continue to fascinate and enchant visitors from around the world, offering a glimpse into the boundless potential of human creativity and our enduring connection to the natural world.

• Top image: Gopachal Jain monuments.
• Source: sumit / Adobe Stock

By Joanna Gillan

{ https://www.ancient-origins.net/ }

20-03-2023 om 00:46 geschreven door peter  

Archaeology Enigmas: Four Mystery Doors That Should Never be Opened (Video)

Archaeology is a field that is constantly searching for new discoveries and secrets buried deep in the past. Some of the most intriguing archaeological mysteries involve doors that have remained sealed for decades or even centuries. These doors hold the potential to reveal hidden treasures and long-lost secrets, but they also pose a challenge to archaeologists who must figure out how to open them without damaging what lies inside.

Take, for example, the Taj Mahal in India. This iconic building is not only a symbol of eternal love but also a place shrouded in mystery. Hidden behind numerous sealed doors are rooms that have remained untouched for centuries. Similarly, the Great Sphinx of Giza , the largest monolith statue in the world, has revealed two rectangular chambers hidden beneath its paws, discovered using a seismograph. These hidden chambers are a testament to the potential secrets that lie beneath the surface of even the most well-known archaeological sites.

The quest to uncover the secrets of these sealed doors continues to fascinate archaeologists and the public alike. As technology improves and new methods of exploration are developed, there is hope that we may one day unlock the mysteries hidden behind these doors and gain a deeper understanding of our past. Until then, the sealed doors of the Taj Mahal, the Great Sphinx, Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple , and the tomb of Qin Shi Huang remain tantalizing enigmas for the world of archaeology to unravel.

• Top image: Old locked gate closed to a large castle.
• Source: Ekaterina / Adobe Stock

By Joanna Gillan

{ https://www.ancient-origins.net/ }

15-03-2023 om 00:53 geschreven door peter  

The Ancient ‘Computer’ That Simply Shouldn’t Exist (Video)

When we think of ancient technology, we often imagine simple tools and primitive machinery. But what if we told you that over 2,000 years ago, the ancient Greeks had built the world’s oldest computer? That's right, we're talking about the Antikythera mechanism , a complex device discovered in a shipwreck off the coast of Greece in 1901.

This incredible machine contained a system of gears and cogs that was able to predict astronomical positions and eclipses with incredible accuracy. It's no wonder that some have called it the world's first computer, a marvel of engineering that was centuries ahead of its time. The Antikythera mechanism is a reminder that even in the ancient world, there were minds that were capable of incredible feats of technology and innovation.

• Top image: Artistic rendering of the Antikythera mechanism, the oldest analogue computer.
• Source: AkuAku / Adobe Stock.

By Joanna Gillan

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{ https://www.ancient-origins.net/ }

14-03-2023 om 22:48 geschreven door peter  

12-03-2023 om 22:11 geschreven door peter  

{ https://scientias.nl/ }

10-03-2023 om 17:43 geschreven door peter  

Rare Smiling Sphinx Statue Found in Egypt and it May Depict Emperor Claudius

Archaeologists in southern Egypt have uncovered a remarkable miniature sphinx statue, sporting a rare feature of a smiling face with two dimples. The artifact was found near the Hathor Temple in a tomb with two levels and is believed to potentially represent the Roman Emperor Claudius , making it a significant find. The unusual smiling expression on the sphinx is not typically found in ancient Egyptian art, adding to the intrigue and mystery surrounding the discovery.

In addition, researchers also found a Roman stele (stone slab) written in demotic and hieroglyphic scripts next to the sphinx. Once fully deciphered, the stele may reveal the identity of the sculpted ruler, according to a press release by Egypt’s Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities. They also discovered a two-layer platform and a mud-brick basin from the Byzantine era. Emperor Claudius is a likely option as he extended Rome’s rule into North Africa between 41 and 54 AD, which coincides with the dating of these finds.

The smiling sphinx in situ, near the Temple of Dendera in Egypt.

Source: Ministry of Antiquities and Tourism

The Roman stela found next to the sphinx.

Source: Ministry of Antiquities and Tourism

The Hathor Temple and the Dendera Zodiac

The Hathor Temple, which is within the Dendera Temple Complex in Qena province, located about 450 kilometers (280 miles) south of Cairo, is one of Egypt's best-preserved ancient sites. The smiling sphinx and artifacts were discovered within the walls of the complex.

The Hathor temple was constructed during the Ptolemaic dynasty, which ruled Egypt from 305 BC to 30 BC. It was an important pilgrimage site in ancient Egypt, and many visitors would come to the temple to seek the goddess's blessings and perform rituals. Hathor was a complex deity, worshipped as the goddess of love, beauty, fertility, music, and dance. She was also associated with motherhood, childbirth, and the sky.

The temple is home to the Dendera Zodiac , a celestial map that has been on display at the Louvre in Paris since 1922. The Dendera Zodiac is one of the earliest known representations of the constellations and is considered to be an important document in the history of astronomy. It shows the twelve zodiac signs, as well as other astronomical features such as the planets, the Milky Way, and the constellations of Orion and Sirius.

• Is The Iconic Dendera Zodiac of Ancient Egypt The Oldest Horoscope in the World?
• The Magnificent Temple of Hathor, Goddess of Love: Best Preserved Temple in all of Egypt

Temple of Hathor, Dendera

(Public Domain)

Egypt’s Recent Discoveries to Boost Tourism

Egypt has been unveiling major archaeological finds in recent months, primarily in the Saqqara necropolis south of Cairo, but also in Giza and Luxor. Just last week, the antiquities ministry announced the discovery of a hidden nine-meter passage inside the Great Pyramid of Giza, which could lead to the burial chamber of pharaoh Khufu.

In January, archaeologists in Luxor uncovered an 1,800-year-old complete residential city from the Roman era. These discoveries have been seen by some experts as having more political and economic significance than scientific, reports the Associated Press .

Egypt is relying on tourism to revive its vital tourism industry, which has suffered a severe economic crisis, severely dependent on foreign tourism. The government aims to draw in 30 million tourists per year by 2028, up from 13 million before the pandemic.

The discovery of the sphinx statue near the Hathor Temple is another significant find for Egyptian archaeologists. With ongoing excavations in various parts of the country, Egypt's rich history continues to be uncovered. These archaeological finds not only have scientific importance but also economic significance for the country's vital tourism industry.

• Top image: The smiling sphinx unearthed in Egypt.
• Source: Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities

By Sahir Pandey

{ https://www.ancient-origins.net/ } 

10-03-2023 om 00:39 geschreven door peter  

3-Million-Year-Old Oldowan Tools and Cut-Marked Bones Unearthed in Kenya

by Enrico de Lazaro

Oldowan tools, consisting of stones with one to a few flakes removed, are the oldest widespread and temporally persistent hominin tools. The oldest of these were previously known from around 2.6 million years ago in Ethiopia, and by 2 million years ago, they were found to be quite widespread. Now, paleoanthropologists have discovered a new, older fossil site from around 3 to 2.6 million years ago in Kenya, where Oldowan tools were not only present, but were also being used to process a variety of foods, including hippopotamus and bovids. Thus, it appears that these tools were widespread much earlier than previous estimates and were widely used for food processing. Which hominins were using these tools remains uncertain, but Paranthropus fossils occur at the site.

Oldowan tools from the site of Nyayanga in Kenya: a dorsal flake, a ventral flake, and a core.

Image credit: Plummer et al., doi: 10.1126/science.abo7452.

The appearance of Oldowan tools around 2.6 million years ago was a technological breakthrough that used systematically produced, sharp-edged flakes for cutting and cobbles or cores for percussion.

Although the Oldowan is often attributed to the genus Homo, multiple hominin species overlapped with these early tools, and it is possible that other genera, such as Paranthropus, made and/or used them.

Some scientists have linked emergent Oldowan technology to the first access to or more efficient processing of nutrient-rich animal carcasses.

Scientists have unearthed more than 300 stone tools at the Nyayanga site in southwestern Kenya (pictured in 2014, prior to excavation).

PHOTOGRAPH BY T.W. PLUMMER, HOMA PENINSULA PALEOANTHROPOLOGY PROJECT

Others have argued that plant food processing was the primary goal of early Oldowan stone tool usage, with increased carnivory — and butchery with stone tools) being added to the behavioral repertoire after 2 million years ago.

The evolutionary benefits connected with the emergence of Oldowan technology are unclear because of the paucity of Late Pliocene Oldowan sites, previously known only from the Afar Triangle of Ethiopia.

The new finds from the 3.03- to 2.6-million-year-old site at Nyayanga, Kenya, expand the geographic range of the earliest Oldowan tools by more than 1,300 km and the range of Paranthropus by approximately 230 km to southwestern Kenya.

“This is one of the oldest if not the oldest example of Oldowan technology,” said Queens College researcher Thomas Plummer, lead author of the study.

“This shows the toolkit was more widely distributed at an earlier date than people realized.”

Paranthropus boisei.

Image credit: © Roman Yevseyev.

Not only were Oldowan tools present, but fossilized bones with associated stone-tool damage demonstrate the tools were used to butcher large animals: hippopotamids and bovids.

Furthermore, use-wear patterns on the tools themselves suggest the processing of plant materials.

“The site featured at least three individual hippos,” Dr. Plummer and colleagues said.

“Two of these incomplete skeletons included bones that showed signs of butchery.”

“We found a deep cut mark on one hippo’s rib fragment and a series of four short, parallel cuts on the shin bone of another.”

“We also found antelope bones that showed evidence of hominins slicing away flesh with stone flakes or of having been crushed by hammerstones to extract marrow.”

“The analysis of wear patterns on 30 of the stone tools found at the site showed that they had been used to cut, scrape and pound both animals and plants”

“Because fire would not be harnessed by hominins for another 2 million years or so, these stone toolmakers would have eaten everything raw, perhaps pounding the meat into something like a hippo tartare to make it easier to chew.”

The discovery of teeth from the muscular-jawed Paranthropus alongside these stone tools begs the question of whether it might have been that lineage rather than the Homo genus that was the architect of the earliest Oldowan stone tools, or perhaps even that multiple lineages were making these tools at roughly the same time.

“The behaviors preserved at Nyayanga are at least 600,000 years older than prior evidence of megafaunal carcass and plant processing and substantially predate the increase in absolute brain size documented in the genus Homo after 2 million years ago,” the authors concluded.

“The Late Pliocene expanded geography of the earliest Oldowan, and new evidence of its use in diverse tasks amplifies our understanding of the adaptive advantage of early stone technology in hominin diet and foraging ecology.”

• A paper on the findings was published February 9, 2023 in the journal Science.
• Thomas W. Plummer et al. 2023. Expanded geographic distribution and dietary strategies of the earliest Oldowan hominins and Paranthropus. Science 379 (6632): 561-566; doi: 10.1126/science.abo7452

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28-02-2023 om 23:35 geschreven door peter  

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28-02-2023 om 21:15 geschreven door peter  

Mudlarker Finds Bronze Age Shoe on a UK Riverbank Dated 2,800 Years Old!

A man exploring along a riverbank in northern Kent recently discovered the oldest shoe ever found on United Kingdom soil. Carbon dating tests proved the decayed but still recognizable leather artifact was nearly 3,000 years old, having been manufactured sometime between the years 888 and 781 BC. This incredible age highlights what an absolute miracle this discovery was, as the ancient shoe, which likely belonged to a toddler, was lying out in the open fully visible to anyone who might walk by.

One of the Best Mudlarking Adventures Ever

The small, flattened shoe was spotted by archaeologist Steve Tomlinson, a resident of Ramsgate, Kent who works with the Canterbury Archaeological Trust.

On September 17, 2022, Tomlinson and a colleague, archaeologist Emily Brown, were out walking along rivers in Kent, searching for valuable artifacts that might have washed up along the edges. This activity is known as mudlarking, and archaeologists who do it often find intriguing objects that may be anywhere from a few decades to a few centuries old. The best sites for mudlarking are rivers that feed into the ocean (like the River Thames , for example) and are affected by the rising and sinking of the tides. Mudlarkers will arrive during times of low tide, searching along shores that are normally covered by water.

• Mudlarking the Thames: How a Riverbed Became the World’s Biggest Archaeological Site
• The Havering Hoard: Baffling Bronze Age Artifacts Found in London

The unassuming ‘thing’ on the river beach didn’t slip past finder Steve’s trained eye

( Steve Tomlinson )

Someone with an untrained eye might have passed by the shoe without noticing it, or even caring if they did notice. But Tomlinson was actively searching for anomalous objects, and the aged shoe caught his attention immediately.

“The day started well, and between us we had a good selection of finds including plenty of pottery sherds from the Roman period, and various small objects like a small piece of Roman tesserae,” Tomlinson recalled in an article in the Isle of Thanet News :

“We had been out for 3 hours scouring the shoreline, and the tide was turning when we hit the last leg of our day. As we made our way along the foreshore … I came across what looked like a very old shoe-like piece of leather washed up on the mud. It was around 15 centimeters [6 inches] in length.”

Tomlinson and Brown examined the weathered leather of the flattened shoe carefully, trying to estimate its age. The archaeologists concluded that it was most likely an early medieval artifact, meaning it might have been dropped or washed into the river as long as 1,000 years ago.

It might seem unusual that someone finding a shoe next to a river would conclude the object was centuries old. But this wasn’t Tomlinson first time. While mudlarking in 2018, he discovered an Anglo-Saxon shoe sticking out of the mud that was ultimately dated to the 10th century AD.

Expecting a similar result this time, Tomlinson sent his interesting discovery on to the SUERC carbon dating facility in East Kilbride, Scotland. But when the lab revealed the results five weeks later, Tomlinson received one of the great shocks of his life, as he learned he’d underestimated the age of the little old shoe by nearly 2,000 years.

"The date they had given me was just astonishing," Tomlinson said. “This could be not only the oldest shoe found in Kent, but in the British Isles itself, and a very high possibility that this is also the smallest Bronze Age shoe ever discovered in the world.”

It has now been confirmed that this is the most ancient shoe ever recovered in the United Kingdom. This distinction previously belonged to a 2,000-year-old shoe found in 2005 in a quarry in Somerset.

By modern standards the shoe would be listed as a child size 7, and would be appropriate for a toddler aged around 2-3 years old, explained Mr Tomlinson. The child presumably had lost the shoe while playing in or around the riverbank all those years ago, and it had been lying on the bottom of the riverbank waiting to be found ever since.

• What Does This 5,500-Year-old Shoe Found in a Cave Tell Us About Ancient Armenians?
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The shoe has been conserved by Dana Goodburn Brown, an accredited Archaeological Conservator at DGB Conservation . 

(Steve Tomlinson )

Walking Back in Time in a Bronze Age Toddler’s Shoe

Archaeologists are always surprised and delighted when they find ancient items of clothing that are in good enough shape to be studied.

“Prehistoric textiles like this rarely survive and the only chance is by finding them in anaerobic conditions such as bogs and mud (away from the air),” Tomlinson explained. 

But even when an organic artifact is preserved for hundreds or thousands of years, it still takes a lot of luck to actually locate it. And Steve Tomlinson was blessed with an inordinate amount of good fortune, as he fully appreciates.

"Finding something like that is quite extraordinary,” Tomlinson confirmed in an interview with Kent Online . "It opens up history too; we just know nothing about these kinds of things."

The ancient toddler’s shoe will be transferred to the British Museum for more analysis. Now that the shoe has been successfully dated to the Late Bronze Age , it will be tested further to see if scientists can learn what animal it came from. Attempts will be made to extract traces of human DNA from the artifact as well, and if this is successful it could reveal the true age, gender and ethnic identity of the child who wore the leather shoe in the first millennium BC.

• Top image: The Bronze Age shoe, in situ where it was found on the river edge in Kent, England.   
• Source: Steve Tomlinson

By Nathan Falde

{ https://www.ancient-origins.net/ }

28-02-2023 om 17:13 geschreven door peter  

Discovery of Bronze Age child's shoe suggests perennial problem of toddlers dropping their things stretches back 3,000 years

• A 3,000-year-old leather shoe belonging to a toddler was found in north Kent 
• The 15cm shoe was found by archaeologist Steve Tomlinson, 51, in a riverbed 

By CHRIS MATTHEWS FOR MAILONLINE 

Most parents will know the feelin

g of getting home, opening the door and realising your child has somehow lost a shoe.

Scientists now think it could be a feeling that tens of billions of parents have felt for millennia.

A 3,000-year-old toddler's shoe from the Bronze Age, dating from between 888 and 781BC, has been discovered in a north Kent riverbed.

A comforting fact is since then at least 62 billion people have come and gone on Earth and many have likely also faced the same shoe problem that parents today often scratch their heads about.

The rare Bronze Age 15cm leather shoe is thought to be the oldest found in the UK and was found by archaeologist Steve Tomlinson, 51, as he was mudlarking in September.

A Bronze Age leather shoe (pictured) thought to be the oldest in the UK was unearthed in north Kent riverbed

Archaeologist Steve Tomlinson, 51, (pictured) discovered the 3,000-year-old shoe that belonged to a toddler

A micro-CAT scan (pictured) of the shoe discovered that the sole was made from several layers

Mr Tomlinson, from Ramsgate, Kent, didn't think much of the find at first but sent it for carbon-dating at a unit in East Kilbride, Scotland.

Five weeks later he received the 'shocking' result that dated the show from the late Bronze Age.

Mr Tomlinson said: 'I thought it was something good but I still thought it was medieval. 

'I sent it off for carbon-dating and five weeks later I got a call from a gentleman at the lab who said to me, "I think you better sit down for this".

'I'd had a good day's mudlarking that day - I'd found quite a few Roman pottery shards - but I was not expecting that. 

'I could've quite easily missed it but I had an inkling it was something special.

'It's absolutely fascinating.'

The unassuming ‘thing’ on the river beach didn’t slip past finder Steve’s trained eye

( Steve Tomlinson )

The shoe is 15cm long, meaning in today's terms the child would have been a size seven

The child is thought to have been around two or three years old and scientists will do DNA tests to try to determine whether the show's owner was a boy or a girl

An X-ray carried out at Canterbury Christchurch University found the underside of the sole is imprinted with a textile pattern

In today's sizes the shoe would be a size seven and archaeologists think its owner was around two or three years old.

Mr Tomlinson said he is 'confident' it is the oldest of its kind in the UK and possibly the smallest in the world.

He said: 'It's a tiny little thing really.'

READ MORE: 

• Ancient treasures emerge from sinking reservoir in heatwave: Rocks that were intentionally marked by prehistoric Britons up to 6,000 years ago are found as water level drops 

'We hope professionals might be able to reconstruct it eventually and that it might go into the British Museum down the line.

'It's of incredible national interest.'

The shoe is now in the care of heritage scientist and archaeological conservator Dana Goodburn-Brown, 63, who specialises in micro-excavation.

Ms Goodburn-Brown said: 'Organic materials like leather, textiles or wood will not survive unless they're somewhere very arid or in mud without oxygen.

'This shoe has been in a silt environment with sediment, without oxygen. 

'It's what we call anaerobic conditions .

'It gets to this equilibrium state where it doesn't biodegrade. That's why it's so rare.

'It's amazing that it survived so long. 

'The fact that it dislodged from elsewhere and Steve came across it before it started to degrade is incredible.

'We don't know where it originated but it's most likely it was either washed out with cliff erosion, which happens quite regularly in Kent, or emerged during dredging.

Dana, from Sittingbourne, Kent, took the shoe to experts at the University of Kent who examined it under a micro-CT scanner, where they discovered the sole was made up of several layers.

More significantly, an X-ray carried out at Canterbury Christchurch University found the underside of the sole is imprinted with a textile pattern, suggesting it had either been wrapped in or pressed against a piece of material for some time.

The next step is to send the leather for DNA testing to see what they can learn about the shoe's original owner. 

Scientists might even be able to tell whether the toddler was a boy or a girl and what animal the leather came from.

The shoe has been conserved by Dana Goodburn Brown, an accredited Archaeological Conservator at DGB Conservation . 

(Steve Tomlinson )

{ https://www.dailymail.co.uk/ }

28-02-2023 om 16:57 geschreven door peter  

Ancient grammatical puzzle that has baffled scientists for 2,500 years is SOLVED: Expert finally cracks the riddle by decoding a rule taught by 'the father of linguistics' Pāṇini

• Pāṇini was a scholar in India who lived between the 6th and 4th century BC
• Cambridge researcher has decoded a rule in Pāṇini's 'language machine'
• The language machine teaches the pronunciation of the Sanskrit language 
• It means Pāṇini’s grammar can be taught to computers for the first time

By JONATHAN CHADWICK FOR MAILONLINE 

A grammatical puzzle that has defeated scholars since the 5th century BC has finally been solved.

Dr Rishi Rajpopat, an Indian PhD student at the University of Cambridge, has decoded a rule that devised by 'the father of linguistics' Pāṇini. 

The rule is a fundamental part of an ingenious grammatical system created by Pāṇini, called the 'language machine', intended to teach India's sacred Sanskrit language. 

Dr Rajpopat's efforts, detailed in his PhD thesis published today, now mean Pāṇini’s language machine can be taught to computers for the first time. 

Pāṇini's ingenious grammatical system - 4,000 rules detailed in his greatest work, the Aṣṭādhyāyī, which is thought to have been written around 500BC – is meant to work like a machine 

Who was Pāṇini?

Pāṇini was a philologist, grammarian and scholar in ancient India, who lived sometime between the 6th and 4th century BC. 

His 'language machine' is widely considered to be one of the great intellectual achievements in history.

It was detailed in his revered work, the Aṣṭādhyāyī, thought to have been written around 500BC. 

'It's one document and all it's got is 4,000 very short rules,' Dr Rajpopat told MailOnline.

'Each rule is about three to four words on average. What these 4,000 rules do is they help us derive any word of Sanskrit. 

'These 4,000 rules essentially function together as a machine.' 

Dr Rajpopat refers to it as a conceptual machine rather than a physical machine. 

The purpose of the language machine is 'derivation' – the formation of a word by changing the form of the base or by adding affixes to it (e.g., 'hope' to 'hopeful' or 'combine' to 'combination'). 

To give an example in English, a user would take the base word 'define' and the affix 'ation' and give the resulting word to use – 'definition'.

The thing is, when combining a base word and an affix, there are sound differences that need to be accounted for, otherwise it would give a nonsensical word like 'define-ation' (pronounced def-ine-ey-shun).   

Dr Rishi Rajpopat (pictured) made the breakthrough by decoding a rule taught by 'the father of linguistics' Pāṇini

The 4,000 rules that make up Pāṇini's system effectively help users produce grammatically-correct forms of words. 

Each rule has a serial number, based on its order in the document – for example, 7.3.103.  

In case a user found that two of these rules were applicable – a situation known as 'rule conflict' – Pāṇini created one 'metarule' to help users decide which of the two rules should be applied. 

Dr Rajpopat names Pāṇini’s metarule '1.4.2 vipratiṣedhe paraṁ kāryam'. 

Until now, the meaning of this 'metarule' was widely misinterpreted for around 2,500 years, leading to grammatically incorrect results.

'Unfortunately the first scholar to comment on Pāṇini's grammar, Katyayana, misunderstood this metarule,' Dr Rajpopat said. 

'He was familiar with two possible interpretations of this rule and unfortunately he chose the wrong one.

'Thereafter, all the scholars to write about Pāṇini's grammar over the last 2,500 years essentially went ahead with that incorrect interpretation.' 

Pāṇini was a philologist, grammarian, and revered scholar in ancient India, who lived sometime between the 6th and 4th century BC. Pāṇini is thought to have lived in a region in what is now north-west Pakistan and south-east Afghanistan

The traditional but incorrect interpretation of rule 1.4.2 is that when there is a conflict between two rules, the rule with a higher serial order should be chosen or 'wins' (for example, 7.3.103 rather than 7.1.9).

'Now that of course gives us all kind of grammatically incorrect forms if we are to go by that interpretation,' Dr Rajpopat said.

'I reinterpreted this rule as in the event of such interaction between two rules at the same step, the rule that is applicable to the right-hand part of the word wins. 

'That has helped us figure out the algorithm that runs this machine, so now when you follow the correct interpretation of this rule you automatically get the correct answer.'  

Unlike scholars before him, Dr Rajpopat correctly interpreted one of the 4,000-odd rules that make up the so-called 'language machine'. Pictured is his interpretation of the rule, which is referred to when there is 'rule conflict' 

For the last 2,500 years, scholars laboriously developed hundreds of other metarules to try and fix the system and make it work – even though the system wasn't broken. 

'They had to come up with all kinds of extra instructions to help the grammar achieve the grammatically correct form,' Dr Rajpopat told MailOnline. 

'Pāṇini had an extraordinary mind and he built a machine unrivalled in human history. He didn’t expect us to add new ideas to his rules. 

'The more we fiddle with Pāṇini's grammar, the more it eludes us.'

Dr Rajpopat’s work means we have a 'very elegant, simple, teachable' algorithm that runs Pāṇini's grammar, which could potentially be taught to computers. 

Professor Vincenzo Vergiani, Dr Rajpopat’s supervisor at Cambridge, said: 'This discovery will revolutionise the study of Sanskrit at a time when interest in the language is on the rise.' 

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Pāṇini's 'language machine: A revered system for using the ancient Sanskrit language

Pāṇini’s language machine is a reference document for how to use the Sanskrit, a classical Indian language, consisting of a checklist of about 4,000 rules.  

The system – 4,000 rules detailed in his greatest work, the Aṣṭādhyāyī, which is thought to have been written around 500BC – is meant to work like a machine. 

Feed in the base and suffix of a word and it should turn them into grammatically correct words and sentences through a step-by-step process.

Until now, however, there has been a big problem. Often, two or more of Pāṇini’s rules are simultaneously applicable at the same step leaving scholars to agonise over which one to choose.

Solving so-called 'rule conflicts', which affect millions of Sanskrit words including certain forms of ‘mantra’ and ‘guru’, requires an algorithm. 

Pāṇini taught a metarule ('1.4.2 vipratiṣedhe paraṁ kāryam’) to help us decide which rule should be applied in the event of 'rule conflict'. 

But for the last 2,500 years, scholars have misinterpreted this metarule meaning that they often ended up with a grammatically incorrect result.

In an attempt to fix this issue, many scholars laboriously developed hundreds of other metarules but Dr Rishi Rajpopat, an Indian PhD student at the University of Cambridge, found these are not just incapable of solving the problem at hand.

Dr Rajpopat found that Pāṇini’s 'language machine' is 'self-sufficient'. 

Rajpopat said: 'Pāṇini had an extraordinary mind and he built a machine unrivalled in human history. 

'He didn’t expect us to add new ideas to his rules. The more we fiddle with Pāṇini's grammar, the more it eludes us.”

Traditionally, scholars have interpreted Pāṇini’s metarule as meaning: in the event of a conflict between two rules of equal strength, the rule that comes later in the grammar’s serial order wins - but Dr Rajpopat rejects this

Instead, he claims the rule has the following meaning: between rules applicable to the left and right sides of a word respectively, Pāṇini wanted us to choose the rule applicable to the right side. 

Employing this interpretation, Rajpopat found Pāṇini’s language machine produced grammatically correct words with almost no exceptions.

Source: University of Cambridge  

Read more:

• In Pāṇini We Trust: Discovering the Algorithm for Rule Conflict Resolution in the Aṣṭādhyāy�

{ https://www.dailymail.co.uk/ }

23-02-2023 om 00:19 geschreven door peter  

Ancient Environmental DNA Reveals Thriving 2-Million-Year-Old Life on Greenland

A “breakthrough” has been made in understanding the history of our planet. Studying ancient environmental DNA a team of researchers has now tracked and mapped the evolution of biological communities that existed some two million-years-ago (Mya).

Until now, the scientific understanding of Earth’s ancient biological lifeforms was greatly built on the oldest environmental DNA available, which was taken from a woolly mammoth that roamed in the Siberian tundra around 1 Mya. But a team of researchers has now sampled and interpreted DNA from sedimentary clay and quartz deposits taken from the permafrost of Greenland that dates back to around 2 million Mya.

Based on this new study of ancient environmental DNA, the team of researchers has presented a detailed picture of life in a 2-million-year-old (Myo) environment, describing it as “far removed from the icy shores of the Arctic Circle.” But more importantly, they think their new techniques and methodology might soon shine light on the ancient origins of humans .

• UK’s Oldest Human DNA Reveals Two Distinct Ancient Tribes of Britain
• Amazing New Siberian Mammoth Remains May Lead to Cloning Breakthrough

A two-million- year-old trunk from a larch tree still stuck in the permafrost within the coastal deposits. The tree was carried to the sea by the rivers that eroded the former forested landscape.

(Professor Svend Funder/ Nature)

Peering Through A Wormhole In Time

A new paper published in the journal Nature explores an ancient ecosystem through the results of an analysis of “the oldest ancient environmental DNA recovered to date,” anywhere. The samples were all taken in the north of Greenland, and the study reveals the animal and plant species that roamed these northern territories approximately two Mya.

Author of the new paper, Geneticist Eske Willerslev of the University of Cambridge in the UK and the University of Copenhagen in Denmark, says the new research opens “a new chapter spanning 1 million extra years of history.” And as a result of this new study scientists can now “look directly at the DNA of a past ecosystem that far back in time" added Eske.

Prof. Eske Willerslev and a colleague sample sediments for environmental DNA in Greenland.

(Courtesy of NOVA, HHMI Tangled Bank Studios & Handful of Films/ Nature)

Revolutionary Steps in Environmental DNA Analysis

The ancient environmental DNA was identified in samples taken at the Kap København Formation, located in Peary Land, North Greenland. Often described as a ‘polar desert’ this region is renowned for its rare fossils dating back to the Neogene period beginning 23.03 million years ago (Mya) to the beginning of the present Quaternary Period 2.58 Mya.

Notwithstanding, because ‘vertebrate’ fossils are rare in the Arctic researchers have always struggled to obtain samples that reveal new data about ancient biological communities. Eske explains that all previous research suggested that around 2–3 Mya the Kap København Formation region had experienced a much warmer climate with “temperatures 11–19 °C warmer than today.” But the new research was constructed around extracted and sequenced DNA “from 41 organic-rich sediment samples taken from 5 different sites within the Kap København Formation.”

• Conclusions About Ancient Populations May be Drastically Wrong Due to Dodgy Method
• Successfully Dating a Mummy Just Got Easier. New Testing Revealed

Newly thawed moss from the permafrost coastal deposits. The moss originates from erosion of the river that cut through the landscape at Kap København some two million years ago.

(Professor Nicolaj K. Larsen/ Nature)

Mapping A Two MYO Ecosystem

Geologist Kurt Kjær of the University of Copenhagen explains that most of the samples were taken many years ago during other research projects. It wasn't until “a new generation of DNA extraction and sequencing equipment was developed” that extremely small and damaged fragments of DNA in the sediment samples could be analysed enabling the new “map a 2-million-year-old ecosystem."

The new model of the Greenland polar region some 2 Mya shows an ancient ecosystem thriving with fern and fauna. An open boreal forest was filled with “a mixed vegetation of poplar, birch and thuja trees, as well as a variety of Arctic and boreal shrubs and herbs.” Furthermore, mitochondrial DNA allowed the researchers to build a picture of the wildlife from the ground up.

On a microscopic scale, DNA was identified from microorganisms and fungi and the ancient world was populated by ants and fleas. On the other end of the spectrum giant mastodons roamed among reindeer, rodents and geese, and until this study it was thought that mastodons did not range as far north as Greenland. Then, in areas that were once ancient seas, the scientists recovered DNA from the Atlantic horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus).

Questing Ancient Origins

In conclusion, the authors suggest their data points towards “Earth's future in the face of a changing climate.” What they mean here is that they now have insights into the ability of different species to adapt to the changing environments resulting from temperature increases. Geogeneticist Mikkel Pederson of the University of Copenhagen said the new found information suggests that given time, “more species can evolve and adapt to wildly varying temperatures than previously thought.”

In the opening sentence this new research was described as a “breakthrough.” Why so? Now that ancient environmental DNA has been extracted from clay and quartz samples, and successfully analysed, the new technique might now be turned towards deposits from other locations around the world. Willerslev said “the possibilities are endless" and that if the new method was applied in Africa scientists might soon be gathering “ground-breaking information about the origin of the first humans and their ancestors."

• Top image: Reconstruction of Kap København formation two-million years ago in a time where the temperature was significantly warmer than northernmost Greenland today.        
• Source: Beth Zaiken / Nature

By Ashley Cowie

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{ https://www.ancient-origins.net/ }

22-02-2023 om 00:29 geschreven door peter  

Five Legendary Lost Cities that have Never Been Found

The story of Atlantis is one of the most renowned and enduring tales of a lost city, said to have been swallowed up by the sea and lost forever. Yet, the story of Atlantis is not unique, as other cultures have similar legends of landmasses and cities that have disappeared under the waves, been lost beneath desert sands, or buried beneath centuries of vegetation. From the ancient homeland of the Aztecs, to jungle cities of gold and riches, we examine five legendary lost cities that have never been found.

1. Percy Fawcett and the Lost City of Z

Since Europeans first arrived in the New World, there have been stories of a legendary jungle city of gold, sometimes referred to as El Dorado.  Spanish Conquistador, Francisco de Orellana was the first to venture along the Rio Negro in search of this fabled city.  In 1925, at the age of 58, explorer Percy Fawcett headed into the jungles of Brazil to find a mysterious lost city he called “Z”.  He and his team would vanish without a trace and the story would turn out be one of the biggest news stories of his day.  Despite countless rescue missions, Fawcett was never found. 

In 1906, the Royal Geographical Society, a British organization that sponsors scientific expeditions, invited Fawcett to survey part of the frontier between Brazil and Bolivia.  He spent 18 months in the Mato Grosso area and it was during his various expeditions that Fawcett became obsessed with the idea of lost civilizations in this area. In 1920, Fawcett came across a document in the National Library of Rio De Janeiro called Manuscript 512.  It was written by a Portuguese explorer in 1753, who claimed to have found a walled city deep in the Mato Grosso region of the Amazon rainforest, reminiscent of ancient Greece.  The manuscript described a lost, silver laden city with multi-storied buildings, soaring stone arches, wide streets leading down towards a lake on which the explorer had seen two white Indians in a canoe.  Fawcett called this the Lost City of Z.

In 1921, Fawcett set out on his first of many expeditions to find the Lost City of Z, but his team were frequently hindered by the hardships of the jungle, dangerous animals, and rampant diseases.  Percy’s final search for Z culminated in his complete disappearance.  In April 1925, he attempted one last time to find Z, this time better equipped and better financed by newspapers and societies including the Royal Geographic Society and the Rockefellers.  In his final letter home, sent back via a team member, Fawcett sent a message to his wife Nina and proclaimed “We hope to get through this region in a few days.... You need have no fear of any failure.”  It was to be the last anyone would ever hear from them again.

While Fawcett’s lost city of Z has never been found, numerous ancient cities and remains of religious sites have been uncovered in recent years in the jungles of Guatemala, Brazil, Bolivia and Honduras. With the advent of new scanning technology, it is possible that an ancient city that spurred the legends of Z, may one day be found.

2. The Lost City of Aztlan – Legendary Homeland of the Aztecs

The Aztec people of Mexico created one of the most powerful empires of the ancient Americas. While much is known about their empire located where today’s Mexico City can be found, less is known about the very start of the Aztec culture. Many consider the missing island of Aztlan to be the ancient homeland where the Aztec people began to form as a civilization prior to their migration to the Valley of Mexico. Some believe it is a mythical land, similar to Atlantis or Camelot, which will live on through legend but will never be found in physical existence. Others believe it to be a true, physical location that will someday be identified. Searches for the land of Aztlan have spanned from Western Mexico, all the way to the deserts of Utah, in hopes of finding the legendary island. However, these searches have been fruitless, as the location – and existence – of Aztlan remain a mystery.

The formation of civilization at Aztlan comes from legend. According to Nahuatl legend, there were seven tribes that once lived at Chicomoztoc – “the place of the seven caves.” These tribes represented the seven Nahua groups: Acolhua, Chalca, Mexica, Tepaneca, Tlahuica, Tlaxcalan, and Xochimilca (different sources provide variations on the names of the seven groups). The seven groups, being of similar linguistic groups, left their respective caves and settled as one group near Aztlan.

The word Aztlan means “the land to the north; the land from whence we, the Aztecs, came.” It is said that eventually, the people who inhabited Aztlan became known as the Aztecs, who then migrated from Aztlan to the Valley of Mexico. The Aztec migration from Aztlan to Tenochtitlán is a very important piece of Aztec history. It began on May 24, 1064, which was the first Aztec solar year.

To this day, the actual existence of an island known as Aztlan has not been confirmed. Many have searched for the land, in hopes of having a better understanding of where the Aztecs came from, and perhaps a better understanding of ancient Mexican history. However, like other lost cities, it is not clear whether Aztlan will ever be found.

3. The Lost Land of Lyonesse – Legendary City on the Bottom of the Sea

In Arthurian legend, Lyonesse is the home country of Tristan, from the legendary story of Tristan and Iseult.  The mythical land of Lyonesse is now referred to as the “Lost Land of Lyonesse,” as it is ultimately said to have sunk into the sea. However, the legendary tale of Tristan and Iseult shows that Lyonesse is known for more than sinking into the ocean, and that it had a legendary presence while it remained above ground. While Lyonesse is mostly referred to in stories of legend and myth, there is some belief that it represents a very real city that sunk into the sea many years ago. With such a legendary location, it can be difficult to ascertain where the legend ends and reality begins.

There are some variations in the legends that surround the sinking of the land. Prior to its sinking, Lyonesse would have been quite large, containing one hundred and forty villages and churches. Lyonesse is said to have disappeared on November 11, 1099 (although some tales use the year 1089, and some date back to the 6th century). Very suddenly the land was flooded by the sea. Entire villages were swallowed, and the people and animals of the area drowned. Once it was covered in water, the land never reemerged. While the Arthurian tales are legendary, there is some belief that Lyonesse was once a very real place attached to the Scilly Isles in Cornwall, England. Evidence shows that sea levels were considerably lower in the past, so it is very possible that an area that once contained a human settlement above-ground is now beneath the sea level. Indeed, fisherman near the Scilly Isles tell tales of retrieving pieces of buildings and other structures from their fishing nets. These stories have never been substantiated, and are viewed by some as tall tales.

From the legendary tales of Tristan and Iseult, to Arthur’s final battle with Mordred, to the stories of a city being swallowed by the sea, the tales of Lyonesse invoke a vast array of thoughts and emotions by those who wish to know more about this legendary city, and who like to believe that it’s legendary tales are founded upon a very real lost city.

4. The Search for El Dorado – Lost City of Gold

For hundreds of years, treasure hunters and historians alike have searched for El Dorado, the lost city of gold. The idea of a city filled with gold and other riches has a natural appeal, drawing the attention of individuals from all over the world in hopes of discovering the ultimate treasure, and an ancient wonder. In spite of numerous expeditions around all of Latin America, the city of gold remains a legend, with no physical evidence to substantiate its existence.

The origins of El Dorado come from legendary tales of the Muisca tribe. Following two migrations – one in 1270 BC and one between 800 and 500 BC, the Muisca tribe occupied the Cundinamarca and Boyacá areas of Colombia. According to legend, as written in Juan Rodriguez Freyle’s “El Carnero,” the Muisca practiced a ritual for every newly appointed king that involved gold dust and other precious treasures.

When a new leader was appointed, many rituals would take place before he took his role as king. During one of these rituals, the new king would be brought to Lake Guatavita, where he would be stripped naked, and covered in gold dust. He would be placed upon a highly decorated raft, along with his attendants, and piles of gold and precious stones. The raft would be sent out to the center of the lake, where the king would wash the gold dust from his body, as his attendants would throw the pieces of gold and precious stones into the lake. This ritual was intended as a sacrifice to the Muisca's god. To the Muisca, “El Dorado” was not a city, but the king at the center of this ritual, also called “the Gilded One.” While El Dorado is meant to refer to the Gilded One, the name has now become synonymous with the lost city of gold, and any other place where one can quickly obtain wealth.

In 1545, Conquistadores Lázaro Fonte and Hernán Perez de Quesada attempted to drain Lake Guatavita. As they did so, they found gold along its shores, fueling their suspicion that the lake contained a treasure of riches. They worked for three months, with workers forming a bucket chain, but they were unable to drain the lake sufficiently to reach any treasures deep within the lake. In 1580, another attempt to drain the lake was made by business entrepreneur Antonio de Sepúlveda. Once again, various pieces of gold were found along the shores, but the treasure at the depths of the lake remained concealed. Other searches were conducted on Lake Guatavita, with estimates that the lake could contain up to $300 million in gold, with no luck in finding the treasures. All searches came to a halt when the Colombian government declared the lake a protected area in 1965. Nonetheless, the search for El Dorado continues, even without the ability to search Lake Guatavita. The legends of the Muisca tribe, the Gilded One and their ritualistic sacrifice of treasures have transformed over time into today’s tale of El Dorado, lost city of gold.

5. The Lost Desert Cities of Dubai: The Hidden History

Dubai cultivates an ultra-modern image of dazzling architecture and effortless wealth. Yet its deserts conceal forgotten cities and a hidden history which reveal how its early inhabitants adapted and overcame dramatic past climate change.

One of the most famous lost cities of Arabia – tantalizingly so because historians have known it existed from written records but simply could not find it – is the medieval city of Julfar. Home to the legendary Arabian seafarer Ahmed ibn Majid, as well as allegedly to the fictional Sindbad the Sailor, Julfar thrived for a thousand years before falling into ruin and disappearing from human memory for almost two centuries. Unlike other desert cities, Julfar was a thriving port, in fact the hub of southern Gulf Arabic trade in the Middle Ages.

Julfar was known to be somewhere on the Persian Gulf coast north of Dubai, but the actual site was only found by archaeologists in the 1960s. The earliest signs of settlement found on the site date from the 6th century, by which time its inhabitants were already trading as far afield as India and the Far East on a routine basis.

The 10th to 14th centuries were a golden age for Julfar and for long-distance Arab trading and seafaring, with Arab navigators routinely traveling halfway around the world. Arabs had sailed into European waters long before Europeans succeeded in navigating through the Indian Ocean and into the Persian Gulf, for instance. As the main base for these voyages and trade, Julfar was the largest and most important city in the southern Gulf for over a thousand years. Arab merchants routinely made the mammoth eighteen-month sea voyage as far as China, and traded almost everything imaginable.

Such a valuable commercial centre attracted constant attention from rival powers though. The Portuguese took control in the 16th century, by which time Julfar was a substantial city of around 70,000 people. A century later the Persians seized it, only to lose it in 1750 to the Qawasim tribe from Sharjah who established themselves next-door at Ras al-Khaimah, which they continue to rule to this day, leaving the old Julfar to gradually decay until its ruins became forgotten amongst the coastal sand dunes. Today most of Julfar in all likelihood remains still hidden beneath the sprawling dunes north of Ras al-Khaimah.” – courtesy David Millar

By: Joanna Gillan

{ https://www.ancientoriginsunleashed.com/ }

20-02-2023 om 01:14 geschreven door peter  

Paul Seaburn

When asked what one thing sets humans apart from even the smartest and most advanced animals, most people (leaving a religious argument aside) would say that our use of tools best shows our advantage over animals. While there are a few examples of chimps and birds using rudimentary tools for simple tasks, our ability is so advanced, we even fashion clothing to wear our tools wherever we go – flouting our intelligence and manual dexterity to passing creatures. Unfortunately, our tool-based dominion over all other creatures has been called into question … and it looks like we were not the only species to learn how to use tools. In fact, we probably weren’t the first either.

Archaeologists in Kenya have uncovered stone tools dating back around 2.9 million years … and the users of those tools were not ancestors of Homo sapiens. Even more ego-deflating – the tools were found in a primitive tool-making factory where these hominids used tools to make better tools for others. Does this change everything? Are the animals gloating?

“Oldowan tools, consisting of stones with one to a few flakes removed, are the oldest widespread and temporally persistent hominin tools. The oldest of these were previously known from around 2.6 million years ago in Ethiopia, and by 2 million years ago, they were found to be quite widespread.”

In a new paper published in the journal Science, Tom Plummer, a paleoanthropologist at Queens College and lead author, explains how Oldowan tools – named for the site of Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, where in the 1930s archaeologist Louis Leakey found the first of these tools – have been thought to date back 2.6 million years and were linked to early hominins of the Homo genus that are related to or are direct ancestors of modern homo sapiens. The earliest known stone tools date to 3.3 million years old and were found at site Lomekwi 3 in Kenya, but those were primitive compared to Oldowan tools. However, they were also attribute to human ancestors. While how tools developed is a mystery, the idea that ancient humans of the homo genus invented them has remained a constant.

That is, until paleoanthropologist Emma Finestone, from the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, helped excavate an ancient hippo skeleton at a dig site in Nyayanga, Kenya. The skeleton and other bones at the site showed signs of butchering - cutmarks from tools – and the diggers soon found stone blades used to cut meat and plants. Since the site was dated to about 2.8 million years ago, the archeologists expected to find remains of the butchers – and they did. However, these were not the butchers they were looking for.

“When we found the Paranthropus molar, it got really, really exciting.”

What Firestone and the team uncovered was the tooth of a member of the extinct hominin genus Paranthropus, which is believed to contain two species: P. robustus and P. boisei. (Photos of the tooth and the tools can be seen here.)

Fossil hippo skeleton and stone tools are shown in July 2016 at the Nyayanga site in Kenya.

T.W. Plummer/Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

This is the Nyayanga site in July 2014 before excavation. The tan and reddish brown sediments are where Oldowan tools and fossils were unearthed.

T.W. Plummer/Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

T.W. Plummer/Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

Flakes of stone like this could cut through animal skin.

S.E. Bailey/Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

The remains of two hominin teeth were found alongside the stone tools and hippo remains.

Members of the excavation team plot and record the position of fossils and artifacts at the Nyayanga site in July 2017.

T.W. Plummer/Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropology Project

Paranthropus skulls found before were large, with gorilla-like features in the jaw area suggesting they had strong chewing muscles, and wide teeth which were used for grinding. Also, other characteristics indicated Paranthropus like soft foods, so paleontologists assumed they didn’t need tools for killing, butchering or eating animals. That was supported by the assumption that Paranthropus was more apelike than human and did not possess the mental ability to make and use stone tools. That molar under the hippo skeleton upended all of those previous assumptions.

“They are not newbies—they have bashed rocks together before. This hints at an earlier stem to the Oldowan.”

Peter Ditchfield, a geologist at the University of Oxford who helped date the fossils, says in the press release that there is more to find … this site shows that the owner of the molar was already skilled at knapping – using one stone to chip off flakes from another to make it sharp for cutting and stabbing. The earliest known human ancestor with this ability to make Oldowan tools is Homo habilis. Make that “was.”

“Typically, it’s thought that the smaller-toothed Homo would have benefited from making stone tools that assisted in processing food outside of the mouth, whereas Paranthropus was typified by processing its food entirely with its teeth, using its large chewing muscles. When our team determined the age of the Nyayanga evidence, the perpetrator of the tools became a ‘whodunnit’ in my mind. There are several possibilities, and except for fossilized hand bones wrapped around a stone tool, the originator of the early Oldowan may be an unknown for a long time.”

Study coauthor Rick Potts, a paleoanthropologist at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC, tells CNN that the first ancient hominin to invent tools is a mystery once more. He also marvels and the sophisticated ability of the Paranthropus based on the remains and artifacts found at Nyayanga. He compared the sharp stone flakes to lion’s teeth, and the large hammerstones to the grinding molars of elephants. This indicates these Paranthropus members could obtain a variety of plants and animals to eat, and the tools showed that they were skilled in preparing them.

“(The tool kit was) the first simple food-processor.”

While the stone tools showed that Paranthropus were experienced chefs, the tools would have been ineffective for hunting. Since none of the bones showed signs of hunting, the paleontologists conclude that these ancient human relatives butchered hippos that were already dead. That still would have made them alpha hominins of their time – those large amounts of protein and fat gave them stronger bodies and fed the development of bigger brains.

If Paranthropus were so smart, why didn’t they become the dominant species instead of Homo? The evolution of Paranthropus is still not scientifically agreed upon. Some researchers think P. aethiopicus appeared 3.3 million years ago on the Kenyan floodplains of the time. Other debate whether Paranthropus and Homo split as they evolved from Australopithecus. If that happened, it is possible that climate change - a drying period 2.8–2.5 million years ago in the Great Rift Valley – caused Homo to move to the open savanna areas while Paranthropus went to the forests, which were dying off from the drought. Even with their tools for providing a variety of foods, the drought made them unavailable and Paranthropus went extinct. While that makes sense, it is not accepted by all scientists.

Archaeologist Sonia Harmand of Stony Brook University, who was not part of the study, proposes one more controversial theory:

“We’re starting to see … lots of different species around that could have been able to make stone tools. I like the idea that they might have learned directly from each other.”

Could Paranthropus have learned how to make and use tools from the species of Homo and  Australopithecus which lived in Kenya at the same time? If ancients human could learn to share and play well together, why can’t we?

{ https://mysteriousuniverse.org/ }

12-02-2023 om 17:28 geschreven door peter  

The Mystery of the White Horse of Uffington

The prehistoric White Horse of Uffington is one of the oldest hill figures in Britain, and is believed to have inspired the creation of all the other white horse hill figures in the region.  Mystery abounds the creation of the White Horse – who made it, when and why?  Some historians believe the figure represents a horse goddess connected with the local Belgae tribe, others believe it is Celtic goddess Epona, protector of horses, while an alternative theory suggests it is not a horse at all but the mythical dragon slain by Saint George.

Oxfordshire, the region in which the figure is found, and its neighbouring county of Wiltshire, are home to many white horse hill figures. There are or were at least twenty-four of these hill figures in Britain, with no less than thirteen being in Wiltshire. However, the White Horse of Uffington is the only one with known prehistoric origin.  Initially believed to date back to the Iron Age due to similar images found depicted on coins from that period, more recent dating by the Oxford Archaeological Unit placed the hill figure in the Bronze Age, some 3000 years ago.

The Uffington White Horse is high on an escarpment of the Berkshire Downs below Whitehorse Hill, a mile and a half south of the village of Uffington. Measuring some 374 feet in length, the stylised image was created by digging trenches into the earth some ten feet wide, exposing the white chalk bedrock below.

The shape of the horse has changed over the centuries. The present outline may be only a part of the original: aerial photography shows that a larger, more conventional shape of a horse lies beneath. The loss of shape has been caused by slippage of the top soil and by repeated recutting.

The horse is only part of the unique complex of ancient remains that are found at White Horse Hill and beyond, spreading out across the high chalk downland. To the east of the Manger lies Dragon Hill, a low flat-topped mound. It is said to be the site where St. George, England's patron saint, slew the dragon, its blood spilling on the hilltop and leaving forever a bare white patch where no grass can grow.  Across the region, numerous burial mounds can be spotted. These date from the Neolithic period and have been reused up to the Saxon age. The largest contained 47 skeletons.

Dragon Hill.

Photo source: Wikipedia

Whether the hill figure is indeed intended to represent a horse, or some other creature instead, has been debated, but it has certainly been called a horse since at least the 11 ^th century.

The original purpose of the figure is unknown.  The horse, which can only be viewed from above or from an adjacent plateau in the distance, is unique in its features and this leads some to believe it represents the mythical dragon that St. George slain on the adjacent Dragon hill or even his horse. However others believe it represents a Celtic horse goddess Epona, known to represent fertility, healing and death.  Epona had a counterpart in Britain, Rhiannon, so the Uffington white horse may have been cut by adherents of a cult of the horse-goddess to be worshipped in religious ceremonies. 

Others believe it may have been the emblem of a local tribe, and have been cut as a totem or badge marking their land.  Alternatively, the horse could have been cut by worshippers of the sun god Belinos or Belenus, who was associated with horses. He was sometimes depicted on horseback, and Bronze and Iron Age sun chariots were shown as being drawn by horses. Conceivably, if this suggestion is correct, the horse could have been cut on the shallower slope at the top of the hill in order to be seen from above by the god himself.

Once every seven years from at least 1677 until the late 18th century a midsummer ‘scouring festival’ was held, during which the local people cleaned the chalk outline of the horse and enjoyed a three-day celebratory feast within the hillfort. The festival, which may have had ancient origins, lapsed about a hundred years ago and the horse is now cleaned by members of English Heritage, who are responsible for the site.

While the stylised image of the White Horse of Uffington remains elegantly etched within the picturesque Berkshire Downs, its true meaning and purpose appears to have been lost to the pages of history.

• Featured image: The White Horse of Uffington.
• Photo source: Wikimedia

By April Holloway

References

• White Horse Hill – National Trust
• The Uffington White Horse – Wiltshire White Horses
• Uffington White Horse and Dragon Hill – Mysterious Britain and Ireland

{ https://www.ancient-origins.net/ }

09-02-2023 om 23:56 geschreven door peter